The Laws of Bone Structure

Year	Entry
1963	Sedlin ED, Frost HM, Villanueva AR. Variations in cross-section area of rib cortex with age. J Gerontol. 1963;18(1):9-13.
1917	Koch JC. The laws of bone architecture. Am J Anat. March 1917;21(2):177-298.
1962	Bassett CAL, Becker RO. Generation of electric potentials by bone in response to mechanical stress. Science. September 28, 1962;137(3535):1063.
1957	Evans FG. Stress and Strain in Bones: Their Relation to Fractures and Osteogenesis. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1957.
1963	Frost HM. Bone Remodelling Dynamics. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1963.
1960	Trotter M, Broman GE, Peterson RR. Densities of bones of white and Negro skeletons. J Bone Joint Surg. January 1960;42A(1):50-58.
1961	Roth H, Frost HM, Villanueva AR. Physical characteristics of bone, II: biphasic elastic behavior of fresh human bone. Henry Ford Hosp Med Bull. 1961;9(1):153-156.
1958	Frost HM. Preparation of thin undecalcified bone sections by rapid manual method. Stain Tech. November 1958;33(6):273-277.
1964	Frost HM. Mathematical Elements of Lamellar Bone Remodelling. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1964.
1960	Currey JD. Differences in the blood-supply of bone of different histological types. Q J Microsc Sci. September 1960;101(3):351-370.
1962	Currey JD. Stress concentrations in bone. Q J Microsc Sci. March 1962;103(1):111-133.

Year	Entry
2007	Cowin SC, Doty SB. Bone tissue. In: Tissue Mechanics. Boca Raton, FL: Springer; 2007:341-384.
2007	Cowin SC, Doty SB. Bone tissue adaptation. In: Tissue Mechanics. Boca Raton, FL: Springer; 2007:385-424.
1994	Linde F. Elastic and viscoelastic properties of trabecular bone by a compression testing approach. Dan Med Bull. April 1994;41(2):119-138.
1996	van Rietbergen B. Mechanical Behavior and Adaptation of Trabecular Bone in Relation to Bone Morphology [PhD thesis]. Nijmegen, Netherlands: Catholic University of Nijmegen; 1996.
1991	Weinans HH. Mechanically Induced Bone Adaptations Around Orthopaedic Implants [PhD thesis]. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Katholieke Universiteit te Nijmegen; 1991.
1981	Cowin SC. Continuum models of the adaptation of bone to stress. In: Cowin SC, ed. Mechanical Properties of Bone. The Joint ASME-ASCE Applied Mechnics, Fluids Engineering and Bioengineering Conference; June 22-24, 1981; Boulder, CO. New York, NY: American Society of Mechical Engineers; 1981:193-210.
2001	Rüegsegger P. Imaging of bone structure. In: Cowin SC, ed. Bone Mechanics Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:9-1–9-24.
2001	Cowin SC, Moss ML. Mechanosensory mechanisms in bone. In: Cowin SC, ed. Bone Mechanics Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:29-1–29-17.
2025	Maggiano C, Maggiano I. Making the mold: a microstructural perspective on bone growth and mechanical adaptation through bone modeling. In: Stout SD, Crowder C, eds. Bone Histology: A Biological Anthropological Perspective. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2025:47-89.
1976	Wainwright SA, Biggs WD, Currey JD, Gosline JM. Mechanical Design in Organisms. London, UK: Edward Arnold; 1976.
2002	Currey JD. Bones: Structure and Mechanics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2002.
1990	Goldstein SA, Hollister SJ, Kuhn JL, Kikuchi N. The mechanical and remodeling properties of trabecular bone. In: Mow VC, Ratcliffe A, Woo SL-Y, eds. Biomechanics of Diarthrodial Joints. Vol 2. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990:61-81.
1993	Fung YC. Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1993.
1998	Martin RB, Burr DB, Sharkey NA. Skeletal Tissue Mechanics. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1998.
1995	Kress TA, Porta DJ, Snider JN, Fuller PM, Psihogios JP, Heck WL, Frick SJ, Wasserman JF. Fracture patterns of human cadaver long bones. In: Proceedings of the 1995 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 13-15, 1995; Brunnen, Switzerland.155-169.
1987	Frost HM. Bone “mass” and the “mechanostat”: a proposal. Anat Rec. September 1987;219(1):1-9.
1990	Frost HM. Skeletal structural adaptations to mechanical usage (SATMU), I: redefining Wolff's law: the bone modeling problem. Anat Rec. 1990;226(4):403-413.
1990	Frost HM. Skeletal structural adaptations to mechanical usage (SATMU), II: redefining Wolff's Law: the remodeling problem. Anat Rec. April 1990;226(4):414-422.
1990	Frost HM. Skeletal structural adaptations to mechanical usage (SATMU), III: the hyaline cartilage modeling problem. Anat Rec. April 1990;226(4):423-432.
1990	Li XJ, Jee WSS, Chow S-Y, Woodbury DM. Adaptation of cancellous bone to aging and immobilization in the rat: a single photon absorptiometry and histomorphometry study. Anat Rec. May 1990;227B(1):12-24.
2003	Frost HM. Bone's mechanostat: a 2003 update. Anat Rec. 2003;275A(2):1081-1101.
1994	Frost HM. Wolff's law and bone's structural adaptations to mechanical usage: an overview for clinicians. Angle Orthod. June 1994;64(3):175-188.
2012	Christen P, van Rietbergen B, Lambers FM, Müller R, Ito K. Bone morphology allows estimation of loading history in a murine model of bone adaptation. Biomech Model Mechanobiol. March 2012;11(3-4):483-492.
1991	Turner CH. Homeostatic control of bone structure: an application of feedback theory. Bone. 1991;12(3):203-217.
1995	Forwood MR, Turner CH. Skeletal adaptations to mechanical usage: results from tibial loading studies in rats. Bone. October 1995;17(4)(suppl):197S-205S.
1995	Schaffler MB, Choi K, Milgrom C. Aging and matrix microdamage accumulation in human compact bone. Bone. December 1995;17(6):521-525.
1997	Bagi CM, Wilkie D, Georgelos K, Williams D, Bertolini D. Morphological and structural characteristics of the proximal femur in human and rat. Bone. September 1997;21(3):261-267.
1998	Mullender M, van Rietbergen B, Rüegsegger P, Huiskes R. Effect of mechanical set point of bone cells on mechanical control of trabecular bone architecture. Bone. February 1998;22(2):125-131.
1998	Turner CH. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone. November 1998;23(5):399-407.
2002	Burr DB, Robling AG, Turner CH. Effects of biomechanical stress on bones in animals. Bone. May 2002;30(5):781-786.
2010	Herman BC, Cardoso L, Majeska RJ, Jepsen KJ, Schaffler MB. Activation of bone remodeling after fatigue: differential response to linear microcracks and diffuse damage. Bone. October 2010;47(4):766-772.
1973	Pugh JW. The micro-mechanics of cancellous bone, I: microscopic observations. Bull Hosp Joint Dis. April 1973;34(1):92-106.
1988	Frost HM. Vital biomechanics: proposed general concepts for skeletal adaptations to mechanical usage. Calcif Tiss Int. May 1988;42(3):145-156.
1995	Duncan RL, Turner CH. Mechanotransduction and the functional response of bone to mechanical strain. Calcif Tiss Int. December 1995;57(5):344-358.
1983	Frost HM. A determinant of bone architecture: the minimum effective strain. Clin Orthop Relat Res. August 1983;175:286-292.
1992	Huiskes R, Weinans H, Van Rietbergen B. The relationship between stress shielding and bone resorption around total hip stems and the effects of flexible materials. Clin Orthop Relat Res. January 1992;274:124-134.
1996	Mikuni-Takagaki Y, Suzuki Y, Kawase T, Saito S. Distinct responses of different populations of bone cells to mechanical stress. Endocrinology. May 1996;137(5):2028-2035.
1970	Chamay A. Mechanical and morphological aspect of experimental overload and fatigue in bone. J Biomech. May 1970;3(3):263-270.
1972	Rybicki EF, Simonen FA, Weis EB Jr. On the mathematical analysis of stress in the human femur. J Biomech. March 1972;5(2):203-215.
1972	Simon SR, Radin EL, Paul IL, Rose RM. The response of joints to impact loading, II: in vivo behavior of subchondral bone. J Biomech. May 1972;5(3):267-272.
1976	Jendrucko RJ, Hymak WA, Newell PH Jr, Chakrabort BK. Theoretical evidence for the generation of high pressure in bone cells. J Biomech. 1976;9(2):87-91.
1978	Cowin SC, Van Buskirk WC. Internal bone remodeling induced by a medullary pin. J Biomech. 1978;11(5):269-275.
1987	Huiskes R, Weinans H, Grootenboer HJ, Dalstra M, Fudala B, Slooff TJ. Adaptive bone-remodeling theory applied to prosthetic-design analysis. J Biomech. 1987;20(11-12):1135-1150.
1991	Carter DR, Wong M, Orr TE. Musculoskeletal ontogeny, phylogeny, and functional adaptation. J Biomech. 1991;24(suppl 1):3-16.
1991	Biewener AA. Musculoskeletal design in relation to body size. J Biomech. 1991;24(suppl 1):19-29.
1991	Goldstein SA, Matthews LS, Kuhn JL, Hollister SJ. Trabecular bone remodeling: an experimental model. J Biomech. 1991;24(suppl 1):135-150.
1992	Turner CH. On Wolff's law of trabecular architecture. J Biomech. January 1992;25(1):1-9.
1992	Weinans H, Huiskes R, Grootenboer HJ. The behavior of adaptive bone-remodeling simulation models. J Biomech. December 1992;25(12):1425-1441.
1993	Van Rietbergen B, Huiskes R, Weinans H, Sumner DR, Turner TM, Galante JO. The mechanism of bone remodeling and resorption around press-fitted THA stems. J Biomech. April–May 1993;26(4-5):369-382.
1994	Prendergast P, Taylor D. Prediction of bone adaptation using damage accumulation. J Biomech. August 1994;27(8):1067-1076.
1997	Turner CH, Annet V, Pidaparti RMV. A uniform strain criterion for trabecular bone adaptation: do continuum-level strain gradients drive adaptation? J Biomech. June 1997;30(6):555-563.
1987	Roesler H. The history of some fundamental concepts in bone biomechanics. J Biomech. 1987;20(11-12):1025-1034.
1998	Duda GN, Heller M, Albinger J, Schulz O, Schneider E, Claes L. Influence of muscle forces on femoral strain distribution. J Biomech. September 1998;31(9):841-846.
1995	Luo G, Cowin SC, Sadegh AM, Arramon YP. Implementation of strain rate as a bone remodeling stimulus. J Biomech Eng. August 1995;117(3):329-338.
1974	Lanyon LE. Experimental support for the trajectorial theory of bone structure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1974;56B(1):160-166.
1994	Turner CH, Forwood MR, Rho J, Yoshikawa T. Mechanical loading thresholds for lamellar and woven bone formation. J Bone Miner Res. January 1994;9(1):87-97.
1999	McAllister TN, Frangos JA. Steady and transient fluid shear stress stimulate NO release in osteoblasts through distinct biochemical pathways. J Bone Miner Res. June 1999;14(6):930-936.
2020	Chermside-Scabbo CJ, Harris TL, Brodt MD, Braenne I, Zhang B, Farber CR, Silva MJ. Old mice have less transcriptional activation but similar periosteal cell proliferation compared to young‐adult mice in response to in vivo mechanical loading. J Bone Miner Res. September 2020;35(9):1751-1764.
1990	Beaupré GS, Orr TE, Carter DR. An approach for time‐dependent bone modeling and remodeling: theoretical development. J Orthop Res. September 1990;8(5):651-661.
1993	Weinans H, Huiskes R, Van Rietbergen B, Sumner DR, Turner TM, Galante JO. Adaptive bone remodeling around bonded noncemented total hip arthroplasty: a comparison between animal experiments and computer simulation. J Orthop Res. July 1993;11(4):500-513.
1995	Mullender MG, Huiskes R. Proposal for the regulatory mechanism of Wolff's law. J Orthop Res. July 1995;13(4):503-512.
1998	Turner CH, Pavalko FM. Mechanotransduction and functional response of the skeleton to physical stress: the mechanisms and mechanics of bone adaptation. J Orthop Sci. November 1998;3(6):346-355.
1968	Currey JD. The adaptation of bones to stress. J Theo Biol. July 1968;20(1):91-106.
2007	Skedros JG, Baucomb SL. Mathematical analysis of trabecular “trajectories” in apparent trajectorial structures: the unfortunate historical emphasis on the human proximal femur. J Theo Biol. January 7, 2007;244(1):15-45.
1983	Biewener AA, Thomason J, Lanyon LE. Mechanics of locomotion and jumping in the forelimb of the horse (Equus): in vivo stress developed in the radius and metacarpus. J Zool. 1983;201(1):67-82.
1966	Swanson SAV, Freeman MAR. Is bone hydraulically strengthened? Med Biol Eng. September 1966;4(5):433-438.
1982	Frost HM. Review article mechanical determinants of bone modeling. Metab Bone Dis Rel Res. 1982;4(4):217-229.
2014	Christen P, Ito K, Ellouz R, Boutroy S, Sornay-Rendu E, Chapurlat RD, van Rietbergen B. Bone remodelling in humans is load-driven but not lazy. Nat Commun. September 2014;5:4855.
2006	Seeman E, Delmas PD. Bone quality: the material and structural basis of bone strength and fragility. NEJM. May 25, 2006;354(21):2250-2261.
2021	Tiwari AK, Goyal A, Prasad J. Modeling cortical bone adaptation using strain gradients. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part H-J Eng Med. June 2021;235(6):636-654.
1996	Hillam RA. Response of Bone to Mechanical Load and Alterations in Circulating Hormones [PhD thesis]. Bristol, UK: University of Bristol; October 1996.
1983	Hart RT. Quantitative Response of Bone to Mechanical Stress [PhD thesis]. Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve University; January 1983.
2018	Chen JTH. Alterations in Bone Tissue Properties With Parathyroid Hormone Treatment [PhD thesis]. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University; May 2018.
2005	Yoon YJ. Estimates of Bone Elastic Constants At Sequential Hierarchical Levels [PhD thesis]. New York, NY: The City University of New York; 2005.
1993	Lieberman DE. Mobility and Strain: The Biology of Cementogenesis and Its Application to the Evolution of Hunter-Gatherer Seasonal Mobility During the Late Quaternary in the Southern Levant [PhD thesis]. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University; January 1993.
2014	Ferro Pereira A. Cortical Bone Adaptation: A Finite-Element Study of the Mouse Tibia [PhD thesis]. Imperial College London; January 2014.
1998	Robling AG. Histomorphometric Assessment of Mechanical Loading History from Human Skeletal Remains: The Relation Between Micromorphology and Macromorphology At the Femoral Midshaft [PhD thesis]. University of Missouri; December 1998.
2008	Herman BC. Osteocytes and Activation of Bone Remodeling [PhD thesis]. Mount Sinai School of Medicine; 2008.
2021	DiMauro NCB. Modeling Fluid Flow in Bone Mechanoadaptation [Master's thesis]. Northeastern University; December 2021.
2015	Gargac J. Evaluation of Bone Healing, Damage, and Adaptation Using Computational Modeling and Image Processing Techniques [PhD thesis]. University of Notre Dame; July 2015.
1992	Bloomfield SA. Site-Specific Changes in Bone Mass and Alterations in Calciotropic Hormones With Electrical Stimulation Exercise in Individuals With Chronic Spinal Cord Injury [PhD thesis]. The Ohio State University; 1992.
2003	Peterman MM. A Strain Map of the Human Distal Tibia During the Stance Phase of Walking, from Dynamic Cadaver Experiments and Finite Element Analysis Simulations [PhD thesis]. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University; August 2003.
2010	Boyle CH. Computational Study of Wolff's Law Utilizing Design Space Topology Optimization: A New Method for Hip Prosthesis Design [Master's thesis]. Queen's University; August 2010.
1974	Reynolds HM. Measurement of the Inertial Properties of the Segmented Savannah Baboon Southern Methodist University; 1974.
1990	Orr TE. The Role of Mechanical Stresses in Bone Remodeling [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; September 1990.
1994	Fischer KJ. Correspondence Between Bone Density Distributions and Mechanical Loading [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 1994.
1994	Jacobs CR. Numerical Simulation of Bone Adaptation to Mechanical Loading [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; June 1994.
1998	Giddings VL. Computer Simulations of Calcaneal Loading and Bone Adaptation [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; June 1998.
1997	Qin Y-X. Fluid Flow, Matrix Strain and Loading Frequency as Interdependent Control Parameters in Skeletal Adaptation [PhD thesis]. Stony Brook, NY: State University of New York at Stony Brook; May 1997.
2007	Scannell PT. Mechanoregulation Algorithms Predicting Peri-Prosthetic Bone Adaptations [PhD thesis]. Trinity College Dublin; 2007.
2005	Ruimerman R. Modeling and Remodeling in Bone Tissue [PhD thesis]. Eindhoven University of Technology; 2005.
2013	Christen P. Deciphering the Secret Message Within Bone Microstructure [PhD thesis]. Eindhoven University of Technology; 2013.
1994	Oden ZM. Computational Prediction of Functional Adaptation in Canine Radii [PhD thesis]. Tulane University; 1994.
2000	Coleman JC. Analysis of in Vivo Bone Strain History During Dynamic Mechanical Loading [PhD thesis]. Tulane University; 2000.
2004	Roberts MD. Adaptation of Bone to Mechanical and Nonmechanical Stimuli: An Integrated Experimental and Computational Study [PhD thesis]. Tulane University; 2004.
2004	LaMothe JM. Functional Adaptation of Bone [PhD thesis]. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary; September 2004.
2006	Rouhi G. Theoretical Aspects of Bone Remodeling and Resorption Processes [PhD thesis]. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary; March 2006.
1996	Adams DJ. Mechanical Factors Initiating Appositional Bone Formation [PhD thesis]. University of Iowa; May 1996.
2012	Mengoni M. On the Development of an Integrated Bone Remodeling Law for Orthodontic Tooth Movements Models Using the Finite Element Method [PhD thesis]. Liège, Belgique: Université de Liège; June 2012.
1991	Choi K. The Micro Mechanical Properties of Bone Tissue [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 1991.
2010	Hughes JM. Revisiting Harold Frost's Mechanostat Theory of Bone Functional Adaptation: New Interpretations Based on New Evidence [PhD thesis]. University of Minnesota; December 2010.
2001	Villemure I. Étude biomécanique du processus de croissance et de déformation du rachis scolitotique [PhD thesis]. University of Montreal; 2001.
1996	Beck BR. The Relationship of Streaming Potential Magnitude to Strain and Periosteal Modeling [PhD thesis]. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon; December 1996.
1998	Arslanoğlu R. Mathematical Modeling and Experimental Aspects of Cellular Mechanotransduction [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; December 1998.
2013	Eleazer CD. The Interaction of Mechanical Loading and Metabolic Stress on Human Cortical Bone: Testing Anthropological Assumptions Using Cross-Sectional Geometry and Histomorphology [PhD thesis]. Knoxville, University of Tennessee; August 2013.
1998	Yeni YN. Fracture Mechanics of Human Cortical Bone: The Relationship of Geometry, Microstructure and Composition With the Fracture of the Tibia, Femoral Shaft and the Femoral Neck [PhD thesis]. West Virginia University; 1998.
2001	Parsamian GP. Damage Mechanics of Human Cortical Bone [PhD thesis]. West Virginia University; 2001.