Rear seat occupant safety: an investigation of a progressive force-limiting, pretensioning 3-point belt system using adult PMHS in frontal sled tests

wbldb

Forman, Jason¹; Lopez-Valdes, Francisco¹; Lessley, David¹; Kindig, Matthew¹; Kent, Richard¹; Ridella, Stephen²; Bostrom, Ola³

Rear seat occupant safety: an investigation of a progressive force-limiting, pretensioning 3-point belt system using adult PMHS in frontal sled tests

Stapp Car Crash J. 2009;53:49-74

Affiliations

¹University of Virginia, Center for Applied Biomechanics

²National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

³Autoliv Research
Abstract and keywords

Rear seat adult occupant protection is receiving increased attention from the automotive safety community. Recent anthropomorphic test device (ATD) studies have suggested that it may be possible to improve kinematics and reduce injuries to rear seat occupants in frontal collisions by incorporating shoulder-belt force-limiting and pretensioning (FL+PT) technologies into rear seat 3-point belt restraints. This study seeks to further investigate the feasibility and potential kinematic benefits of a FL+PT rear seat, 3-point belt restraint system in a series of 48 kmh frontal impact sled tests (20 g, 80 ms sled acceleration pulse) performed with post mortem human surrogates (PMHS). Three PMHS were tested with a 3-point belt restraint with a progressive (two-stage) force limiting and pretensioing retractor in a sled buck representing the rear seat occupant environment of a 2004 mid-sized sedan. Instrumentation included belt tension load cells, accelerometers on the head and at multiple locations on the spine, and chestbands to measure the chest deformation contours in the transverse plane. The kinematics of the subjects were quantified using off-board, high-speed video. The results of these tests were then compared to matched PMHS tests, published in 2008, performed in the same environment with a standard (not-force limited, not pretensioning) 3-point belt restraint. The FL+PT restraint system resulted in significant (p<0.05) decreases in peak shoulder belt tension (average +/- standard deviation: 4.4 +/- 0.13 kN with the FL+PT belt, 7.8 +/- 0. 6 kN with the standard belt) and 3 ms-resultant, mid-spine acceleration (FL+PT: 34 +/- 3.8 g; standard belt: 44 +/- 1.4 g). The FL+PT tests also produced more forward torso rotation caused by decreased forward excursion of the pelvis and increased payout out of the shoulder belt by the force-limiter. These results support the previous ATD studies that suggest that it may be possible to improve the kinematics of rear seat occupants in this type of collision using a 3-point belt system with a shoulder belt retractor equipped with a two-stage force-limiter and pretensioner.

Keywords: Restraint; Injury Biomechanics; Automobile Occupant Safety; Rear Seat; Force Limiter; Pretensioner; Cadaver; Sled Tests
Links

PubMed: 20058550

SAE: 2009-22-0002

Cited Works (41)

Year	Entry
2003	Parenteau C, Viano DC. Field data analysis of rear occupant injuries, I: adults and teenagers. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress & Exhibition. March 3-6, 2003; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2003-01-0153.
2002	Iwamoto M, Kisanuki Y, Watanabe I, Furusu K, Miki K, Hasegawa J. Development of a finite element model of the total human model for safety (THUMS) and application to injury reconstruction. In: Proceedings of the 2002 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 18-20, 2002; Munich, Germany.
2006	Smith KM, Cummings P. Passenger seating position and the risk of passenger death in traffic crashes: a matched cohort study. Inj Prev. 2006;12(2):83-86.
2006	Forman J, Lessley D, Kent R, Bostrom O, Pipkorn B. Whole-body kinematic and dynamic response of restrained PMHS in frontal sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:299-336. SAE 2006-22-0013.
2002	Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA. October 9, 2002;288(14):1723-1727.
2007	Brumbelow ML, Baker BC, Nolan JM. Effects of seat belt load limiters on driver fatalities in frontal crashes of passenger cars. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 18-21, 2007; Lyon, France.
2004	Oi N, Pandy MG, Myers BS, Nightingale RW, Chancey VC. Variation of neck muscle strength along the human cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2004;48:397-417. SAE 2004-22-0017.
2005	Kuppa S, Saunders J, Fessahaie O. Rear seat occupant protection in frontal crashes. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.
2004	Smith KM, Cummings P. Passenger seating position and the risk of passenger death or injury in traffic crashes. Accid Anal Prev. March 2004;36(2):257-260.
2009	Lopez-Valdes FJ, Forman J, Kent R, Bostrom O, Segui-Gomez M. A comparison between a child-size PMHS and the Hybrid III 6 YO in a sled frontal impact. In: 53rd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 5-7, 2009; Baltimore, MD.237-246.
1998	Zellmer H, Lührs S, Brüggemann K. Optimized restraint systems for rear seat passengers. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.316-326.
1998	Manary MA, Reed MP, Flannagan CAC, Schneider LW. ATD positioning based on driver posture and position. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:287-299. SAE 983163.
2005	Kent R, Henary B, Matsuoka F. On the fatal crash experience of older drivers. In: 49th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). September 12-14, 2005; Boston, MA.371-391.
2000	Berg MD, Cook L, Corneli HM, Vernon DD, Dean JM. Effect of seating position and restraint use on injuries to children in motor vehicle crashes. Pediatrics. April 2000;105(4):831-835.
1978	Foret-Bruno JY, Hartemann F, Thomas C, Fayon A, Tarrière C, Got C, Patel A. Correlation between thoracic lesions and force values measured at the shoulder of 92 belted occupants involved in real accidents. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:271-292. SAE 780892.
2005	Brolin K, Halldin P, Leijonhufvud I. The effect of muscle activation on neck response. Traffic Inj Prev. March 2005;6(1):67-76.
1996	Hassan AM, Parkin S, Mackay M. Spinal injuries in car collisions. In: 40th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 7-9, 1996; Vancouver, BC.19-31.
2003	Kent R, Patrie J, Poteau F, Matsuoka F, Mullen C. Development of an age-dependent thoracic injury criterion for frontal. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 19-22, 2003; Nagoya, Japan.
1982	Kallieris D, Mellander H, Schmidt G, Barz J, Mattern R. Comparison between frontal impact tests with cadavers and dummies in a simulated true car restrained environment. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1982; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:353-367. SAE 821170.
2007	Kent R, Forman J, Parent DP, Kuppa S. Rear seat occupant protection in frontal crashes and its feasibility. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 18-21, 2007; Lyon, France.
2006	Forman J, Lessley D, Shaw CG, Evans J, Kent R, Rouhana SW, Prasad P. Thoracic response of belted PMHS, the Hybrid III, and the THOR-NT mid-sized male surrogates in low-speed, frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:191-215. SAE 2006-22-0009.
1975	Cromack JR, Ziperman HH. Three-point belt induced injuries: a comparison between laboratory surrogates and real world accident victims. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-24. SAE 751141.
2005	Kent R, Lee S-H, Darvish K, Wang S, Poster CS, Lange AW, Brede C, Lange D, Matsuoka F. Structural and material changes in the aging thorax and their role in crash protection for older occupants. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2005;49:231-249. SAE 2005-22-0011.
1998	Braver ER, Whitfield R, Ferguson SA. Seating positions and children’s risk of dying in motor vehicle crashes. Inj Prev. 1998;4(3):181-187.
2004	Walz M. NCAP test improvements with pretensioners and load limiters. Traffic Inj Prev. 2004;5(1):18-25.
2005	Reed MP, Ebert-Hamilton SM, Schneider LW. Development of ATD installation procedures based on rear-seat occupant postures. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:381-421. SAE 2005-22-0018.
1988	Evans L, Frick MC. Seating position in cars and fatality risk. Am J Public Health. November 1988;78(111):1456-1458.
2001	Kent RW, Crandall JR, Bolton J, Prasad P, Nusholtz G, Mertz H. The influence of superficial soft tissues and restraint condition on thoracic skeletal injury prediction. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:183-204. SAE 2001-22-0008.
2008	Forman J, Michaelson J, Kent R, Kuppa S, Bostrom O. Occupant restraint in the rear seat: ATD responses to standard and pre-tensioning, force-limiting belt restraints. In: 52nd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 6-8, 2008; San Diego, CA.141-153.
2008	Michaelson J, Forman J, Kent R, Kuppa S. Rear seat occupant safety: kinematics and injury of PMHS restrained by a standard 3-point belt in frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:295-325. SAE 2008-22-0012.
2005	Laituri TR, Prasad P, Sullivan K, Frankstein M, Thomas RS. Derivation and evaluation of a provisional, age-dependent, AIS3+ thoracic risk curve for belted adults in frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress & Exhibition. April 11-14, 2005; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2005-01-0297.
1975	Adomeit D, Heger A. Motion sequence criteria and design proposals for restraint devices in order to avoid unfavorable biomechanic conditions and submarining. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-165. SAE 751146.
1989	Eppinger RH. On the development of a deformation measurement system and its application toward developing mechanically based injury indices. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:21-28. SAE 892426.
2000	Van Ee CA, Nightingale RW, Camacho DLA, Chancey VC, Knaub KE, Sun EA, Myers BS. Tensile properties of the human muscular and ligamentous cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:85-102. SAE 2000-01-SC07.
1992	Huelke DF, Mackay GM, Morris A, Bradford M. Cervical fractures and fracture-dislocations without head impacts sustained by restrained occupants. In: 36th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 5-7, 1992; Portland, OR.1-23.
1984	Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.
1978	Levine RS, Patrick LM, Begeman PC, King AI. Effect of quadriceps function on submarining. In: 22nd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). July 10-14, 1978; Ann Arbor, MI.319-329.
2009	Forman J, Lopez-Valdes FJ, Lessley D, Kindig M, Kent R, Bostrom O. The effect of obesity on the restraint of automobile occupants. In: 53rd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 5-7, 2009; Baltimore, MD.25-40.
1975	Patrick LM, Levine RS. Injury to unembalmed belted cadavers in simulated collisions. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:79-115. SAE 751144.
1971	Patrick LM, Trosien KR. Volunteer, anthropometric dummy, and cadaver responses with three and four point restraints. In: Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition. January 11-15, 1971; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:256-280. SAE 710079.
2001	Reed MP, Manary MA, Flannagan CAC, Schneider LW, Arbalaez RA. Improved ATD positioning procedures. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress & Exhibition. March 5-8, 2001; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2001-01-0117.

Cited By (42)

Year	Entry
2019	Jermakian JS, Edwards MA, Fein S, Maltese MR. Factors Contributing to Serious and Fatal Injuries in Belted Rear-Seat Occupants in Frontal Crashes. Arlington, VA: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety; April 2019.
2015	Kent RW, Forman J. Restraint system biomechanics. In: Yoganandan N, Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Springer; 2015:113-141.
2015	Cavanaugh JM, Yoganandan N. Thorax injury biomechanics. In: Yoganandan N, Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Springer; 2015:331-372.
2010	Forman JL, Lopez-Valdes FJ, Dennis N, Kent RW, Tanji H, Higuchi K. An inflatable belt system in the rear seat occupant environment: investigating feasibility and benefit in frontal impact sled tests with a 50th percentile male ATD. In: 54th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 17-20, 2010; Las Vegas, NV.111-125.
2010	Sahraei E, Digges K, Marzougui D. Reduced protection for belted occupants in rear seats relative to front seats of new model year vehicles. In: 54th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 17-20, 2010; Las Vegas, NV.149-158.
2011	Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Schlick M, Moore J, Maiman DJ. Comparison of head-neck responses in frontal impacts using restrained human surrogates. In: 55th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 3-5, 2011; Paris, France.181-191.
2012	Arbogast KB, Locey CM, Zonfrillo MR. Differences in thoracic injury causation patterns between seat belt restrained children and adults. In: 56th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 14-17, 2012; Seattle, WA.213-220.
2012	Forman JL, Kent RW, Mroz K, Pipkorn B, Bostrom O, Segui-Gomez M. Predicting rib fracture risk with whole-body finite element models: development and preliminary evaluation of a probabilistic analytical framework. In: 56th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 14-17, 2012; Seattle, WA.109-124.
2013	Trosseille X, Song E, Petitjean A. Chest injury criterion: an update of the equivalent deflection (DEQ). In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 27-30, 2013; Seoul, South Korea.
2013	Bostrom O, Motozawa Y, Oda S, Ito Y, Mroz K. Mechanism of reducing thoracic deflections and rib strains using supplemental shoulder belts during frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 27-30, 2013; Seoul, South Korea.
2015	Lopez-Valdes FJ, Juste-Lorente O. Innovative restraints to prevent chest injuries in frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 8-11, 2015; Gothenburg, Sweden.
2017	Jakobsson L, Bohman K, Stockman I, Svensson M, Wimmerstedt M, Arbogast KB. Rear seat safety for children aged 4-12: identifying the real-world needs towards development of countermeasures. In: Proceedings of the 25th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 5-8, 2017; Detroit, MI.
2019	van Poppel J, Stern AR, Fortenbaugh D, Wilcox G. A parametric study of an adaptive load-limiting restraint system with weight sensing considerations. In: Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 10-13, 2019; Eindhoven, Netherlands.
2009	Lessley DJ, Purtsezov SV, Shaw CG, Parent DP, Riley PO, Kent R, Crandall JR. Assessment and validation of a methodology for measuring anatomical kinematics during impact loading. In: Proceedings of the 37th International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. 2009.
2012	Ash JH, Lessley DJ, Forman JL, Zhang Q, Shaw CG, Crandall JR. Whole‐body kinematics: response corridors for restrained PMHS in frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.142-154.
2017	Jones MLH, Ebert SM, Hu J, Reed MP. Effects of high levels of obesity on lap and shoulder belt paths. In: Proceedings of the 2017 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 13-15, 2017; Antwerp, Belgium.317-326.
2017	Hasija V, Takhounts E, Lee E, Craig M. On the importance of the forces and moments at the occipital condyles in predicting ligamentous cervical spine injuries. In: Proceedings of the 2017 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 13-15, 2017; Antwerp, Belgium.600-612.
2017	Hu J, Zhang K, Fanta A, Jones MLH, Reed MP, Neal M, Wang J-T, Lin C-H, Cao L. Stature and body shape effects on driver injury risks in frontal crashes: a parametric human modelling study. In: Proceedings of the 2017 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 13-15, 2017; Antwerp, Belgium.656-667.
2021	Suntay B, Stammen J, Carlson M, Ramachandra R. Abdominal and thoracic injury risk functions for the large omni-directional child (LODC) ATD. In: Proceedings of the 2021 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 8-10, 2021; Online.537-555.
2021	Hu J, Orton N, Boyle K, Klima J, Staniak C, Scherer R, Reed MP. A systematic evaluation of restraint system performances for tactical vehicles in frontal crashes. In: Proceedings of the 2021 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 8-10, 2021; Online.797-803.
2022	Haverfield ZA, Hunter RL, Loftis KL, Agnew AM. Skeletal site and method-dependent variability of bone mineral density in injury biomechanics research. In: Proceedings of the 2022 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 14-16, 2022; Porto, Portugal.332-360.
2022	Forman J, Kulkarni S, Perez‐Rapela D, Mukherjee S, Panzer M, Hallman J. A method for thoracic injury risk function development for human body models. In: Proceedings of the 2022 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 14-16, 2022; Porto, Portugal.719-746.
2023	Valdano M, Jiménez-Octavio JR, Pipkorn B, López-Valdés FJ. Characterisation of the features of seat-belt systems based on the analysis of large crash databases. In: Proceedings of the 2023 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 13-15, 2023; Cambridge, United Kingdom.905-921.
2024	Brumbelow ML. Reassessing PMHS rib fractures in front sled tests to improve modern restraint systems. In: Proceedings of the 2024 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2024; Stockholm, Sweden.194-212.
2024	Brumbelow ML. Identifying thoracic injury factors by comparing rib fracture patterns in field crashes and PMHS sled tests. In: Proceedings of the 2024 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2024; Stockholm, Sweden.213-231.
2009	Shaw G, Parent D, Purtsezov S, Lessley D, Crandall J, Kent R, Guillemot H, Ridella SA, Takhounts E, Martin P. Impact response of restrained PMHS in frontal sled tests: skeletal deformation patterns under seat belt loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2009;53:1-48. SAE 2009-22-0001.
2011	Kent R, Lopez-Valdes FJ, Dennis NJ, Lessley D, Forman J, Higuchi K, Tanji H, Ato T, Kameyoshi H, Arbogast K. Assessment of a three-point restraint system with a pre-tensioned lap belt and an inflatable, force-limited shoulder belt. Stapp Car Crash J. 2011;55:141-159.
2012	Luet C, Trosseille X, Drazétic P, Potier P, Vallancien G. Kinematics and dynamics of the pelvis in the process of submarining using PMHS sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. October 2012;56:411-442.
2014	Vavalle NA, Schoell SL, Weaver AA, Stitzel JD, Gayzik FS. Application of radial basis function methods in the development of a 95th percentile male seated FEA model. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2014;58:361-384.
2017	Hu J, Reed MP, Rupp JD, Fischer K, Lange P, Adler A. Optimizing seat belt and airbag designs for rear seat occupant protection in frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2017;61:67-100. SAE 2017-22-0004.
2014	Kim J-E, Kim IH, Shum PC, Shih AM, Pintar F, Shen W, Ma X, Laud PW, Heymsfield SB, Allison DB, Zhu S. A computational study of injury severity and pattern sustained by overweight drivers in frontal motor vehicle crashes. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. July 2014;17(9):965-977.
2016	Schafman MA, Kang Y-S, Moorhouse K, White SE, Bolte JH IV, Agnew AM. Age and sex alone are insufficient to predict human rib structural response to dynamic A-P loading. J Biomech. October 3, 2016;49(14):3516-3522.
2011	Lessley D, Shaw G, Riley P, Forman J, Crandall J. Assessment and validation of a methodology for measuring anatomical kinematics of restrained occupants during motor vehicle collisions. J Biosens Bioelectron. 2011;S1:002.
2010	Lopez-Valdes FJ, Forman J, Bostrom O, Kent R. The frontal-impact response of a booster-seated child-size PMHS. Traffic Inj Prev. 2010;11(3):320-327.
2015	Schafman MA. Dynamic Structural Properties of Human Ribs in Frontal Loading [Master's thesis]. The Ohio State University; 2015.
2012	Beck B. Optimising Protection for Motor Vehicle Rear Seat Occupants [PhD thesis]. University of New South Wales; 2012.
2019	Donlon JP. Restraint Biomechanics in Frontal Impacts With Inboard-Leaning Occupants [Master's thesis]. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia; August 2019.
2022	Kulkarni S. Method for Thoracic Injury Risk Function Development for Human Body Models [Master's thesis]. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia; May 2022.
2018	Albert DL. Biomechanical Responses of Human Surrogates Under Various Frontal Loading Conditions With an Emphasis on Thoracic Response and Injury Tolerance [PhD thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; April 19, 2018.
2019	Tatem WM. The Crash Injury Risk to Rear Seated Passenger Vehicle Occupants [PhD thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; December 13, 2019.
2015	Vavalle NA. The Application of a Radial Basis Function Morphing Technique to a Validated Full Human Body Finite Element Model [PhD thesis]. Winston-Salem, NC: Wake Forest University; May 2015.
2017	Davis ML. Development and Full Body Validation of a 5th Percentile Female Finite Element Model [PhD thesis]. Winston-Salem, NC: Wake Forest University; January 2017.