Evaluation of Biofidelity of Anthropomorphic Test Devices and Investigation of Cervical Spine Injury in Rear Impacts: Head-Neck Kinematics and Kinetics of Post Mortem Human Subjects

Cervical spine injuries in rear impact collisions are very common and result in enormous societal cost, with estimates on the order of $8.0 billion annually (NHTSA, 2004). In order to reduce the possibility of cervical spine injuries, car manufacturers have developed and improved seats with restraint systems by using anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) as safety testing tools. Rear impact ATDs should accurately reproduce the kinematic and kinetic responses, known as biofidelity of the head/neck, spine and pelvis of humans. Despite the fact that rear impact events have been studied extensively, there is no consensus as to the exact mechanism of injury or most relevant injury criterion. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the biofidelity of rear impact ATDs by comparing their responses with post mortem human subjects (PMHS) in realistic testing conditions and to investigate correlation between cervical spine injuries and head-neck kinematics/kinetics of PMHS in rear impact conditions.

An experimental seat was designed to measure external loads on the head restraint (4 load cells), seat back (6 load cells), and seat pan (4 load cells) such that occupant dynamic interaction with the seat could be evaluated. A method for obtaining accurate 6 degrees of freedom (DOF) head kinematics in rear impact conditions is proposed and validated. A new instrumentation and dissection technique was proposed and validated in which instrumentation (three accelerometers, three angular rate sensors) capable of measuring the detailed intervertebral kinematics are installed on the anterior aspect of each vertebral body with no muscular damage. A total of seventeen sled tests using eight male PMHS (175± 6.9 cm of stature and 78.4 ± 7.7 kg of weight) and a total of ten sled tests using rear impact ATDs (BioRID II, RID3D, and Hybrid III) have been conducted in both low (8.5g and 17km/h) and moderate (10.5g and 24km/h) speed rear impacts.

Biofidelity of the rear impact ATDs was assessed using the NHTSA Biofidelity Ranking system, which has been improved by compensating phase differences between the PMHS and the ATDs. Overall, both the BioRID II and RID3D were more biofidelic than the Hybrid III in both low and moderate speeds. Injury analyses were performed to find the best predictable physical parameters. Based on the results from the injury analysis, the intervertebral rotation exhibited best statistical significance, correlation with the injuries (0.68 of Pseudo R² and 0.80 of Nagelkerke R²), goodness of fit of the regression model (-11.09 of log-likelihood with 0.00 of p-value), and predictive ability of the injuries (0.95 of Goodman-Kruskal Gamma). The current neck injury criteria were assessed and IV-NIC was selected as a best predictor of the injuries. The NDC for the rotation (NDCr) also showed good correlation with the intervertebral rotation. Two possible physical parameters for the potential neck injury criteria, OC-to-T1 linear velocity in the shear direction and OC-to-T1 angular velocity, were selected based on the correlation analyses.

Year	Entry
1975	Becker E, Willems G. An experimentally validated 3-d inertial tracking package for application in biodynamic research. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:899-930. SAE 751173.
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Year

Entry

1975

Becker E, Willems G. An experimentally validated 3-d inertial tracking package for application in biodynamic research. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:899-930. SAE 751173.

2000

Bertholon N, Robin S, Le-Coz J-Y, Potier P, Lassau J-P, Skalli W. Human head and cervical spine behaviour during low-speed rearend impacts: PMHS sled tests with a rigid seat. In: Proceedings of the 2000 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2000; Montpellier, France.265-289.

1989

Laughlin DR. A magnetohydrodynamic angular motion sensor for anthropomorphic test device instrumentation. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:43-77. SAE 892428.

2004

Sundararajan S, Prasad P, Demetropoulos CK, Tashman S, Begeman PC, Yang KH, King AI. Effect of head-neck position on cervical facet stretch of post mortem human subjects during low speed rear end impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2004;48:331-372. SAE 2004-22-0015.

2003

Di Domenico L, Nusholtz G. Comparison of parametric and non-parametric methods for determining injury risk. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress & Exhibition. March 3-6, 2003; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2003-01-1362.

2005

Rhule D, Rhule H, Donnelly B. The process of evalution and documentation of crash test dummies for Part 572 of the code of federal regulations. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.

2000

Philippens M, Wismans J, Cappon H, Yoganandan N, Pintar F. Whole body kinematics using post mortem human subjects in experimental rear impact. In: Proceedings of the 2000 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2000; Montpellier, France.363-378.

1995

Walz FH, Muser MH. Biomechanical aspects of cervical spine injuries. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 27–March 2, 1995; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 950658.

1993

McConnell WE, Howard RP, Guzman HM, Bomar JB, Raddin JH, Benedict JV, Smith HL, Hatsell CP. Analysis of human test subject kinematic responses to low velocity rear end impacts. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. March 1-5, 1993; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:21-30. SAE 930889.

1975

Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.

1998

Kleinberger M, Sun E, Eppinger R, Kuppa S, Saul R. Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); September 1998.

2000

Yoganandan N, Pintar F, Stemper BD, Schlick MB, Philippens M, Wisman J. Biomechanics of human occupants in simulated rear crashes: documentation of neck injuries and comparison of injury criteria. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:189-204. SAE 2000-01-SC14.

2001

Zellmer H, Stamm M, Seidenschwang A, Brunner A. Enhancement of seat performance in low-speed rear impact. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1999

Nusholtz G, Mosier R. Consistent threshold estimate for doubly censored biomechanical data. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. March 1-4, 1999; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 1999-01-0714.

2000

Boström O, Fredriksson R, Håland Y, Jakobsson L, Krafft M, Lövsund P, Muser MH, Svensson MY. Comparison of car seats in low speed rear-end impacts using the BioRID dummy and the new neck injury criterion (NIC). Accid Anal Prev. March 2000;32(2):321-328.

2005

Kim A, Sutterfield A, Rao A, Anderson KF, Berliner J, Hassan J, Irwin A, Jensen J, Kleinert J, Mertz HJ, Pietsch H, Rouhana S, Scherer R. A comparison of the BioRID II, Hybrid III, and RID2 in low-severity rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.

2003

Stemper BD, Yoganandan N, Pintar FA. Gender dependent cervical spine segmental kinematics during whiplash. J Biomech. September 2003;36(9):1281-1289.

1998

van den Kroonenberg A, Philippens M, Cappon H, Wismans J, Hell W, Langwieder K. Human head-neck response during low-speed rear end impacts. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-221. SAE 983158.

2001

Siegmund GP, Heinrichs BE, Lawrence JM, Philippens MMGM. Kinetic and kinematic responses of the RID2a, Hybrid III and human volunteers in low-speed rear-end collisions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:239-256. SAE 2001-22-0011.

2007

Hardy WN, Mason MJ, Foster CD, Shah CS, Kopacz JM, Yang KH, King AI, Bishop J, Bey M, Anderst W, Tashman S. A study of the response of the human cadaver head to impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:17-80. SAE 2007-22-0002.

2003

Heitplatz F, Sferco R, Fay P, Reim J, Kim A, Prasad P. An evaluation of existing and proposed injury criteria with various dummies to determine their ability to predict the levels of soft tissue neck injury seen in real world accidents. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 19-22, 2003; Nagoya, Japan.

2009

Siegmund GP, Winkelstein BA, Ivancic PC, Svensson MY, Vasavada A. The anatomy and biomechanics of acute and chronic whiplash injury. Traffic Inj Prev. 2009;10(2):101-112.

1994

Geigl BC, Steffan H, Leinzinger P, Roll P, Mühlbauer M, Bauer G. The movement of head and cervical spine during rearend impact. In: Proceedings of the 1994 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 21-23, 1994; Lyon, France.127-137.

1977

Hu AS, Bean SP, Zimmerman RM. Response of belted dummy and cadaver to rear impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:589-625. SAE 770929.

1977

Ewing CL, Thomas DJ, Lustik L, Muzzy WH III, Willems GC, Majewski P. Dynamic response of the human head and neck to +Gy impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:549-586. SAE 770928.

2003

Bortenschlager K, Kramberger D, Barnsteiner K, Hartlieb M, Ferdinand L, Leyer H, Muser M, Schmitt K-U. Comparison tests of BioRID II and RID 2 with regard to repeatability, reproducibility and sensitivity for assessment of car seat protection potential in rear-end impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:473-488. SAE 2003-22-0021.

1975

Ewing CL, Thomas DJ, Lustick L, Becker E, Willems G, Muzzy WH. The effect of the initial position of the head and neck on the dynamic response of the human head and neck to -Gx impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:487-512. SAE 751157.

1995

DiMasi FP, Eppinger RH, Bandak FA. Computational analysis of head impact response under car crash loadings. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:425-438. SAE 952718.

2003

Kim A, Anderson KF, Berliner J, Hassan J, Jensen J, Mertz HJ, Pietsch H, Rao A, Scherer R, Sutterfield A. A biofidelity evaluation of the BioRID II, Hybrid III and RID2 for use in rear impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:489-523. SAE 2003-22-0022.

2005

Willis C, Carroll J, Roberts A. An evaluation of a current rear impact dummy against human response corridors in both pure and oblique rear impact. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.

2003

Kuppa S, Eppinger RH, Mckoy F, Nguyen T, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Development of side impact thoracic injury criteria and their application to the modified ES-2 dummy with rib extensions (ES-2re). Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:189-210. SAE 2003-22-0010.

1996

Kallieris D, Rizzetti A, Mattern R, Thunnissen J, Philippens M. Cervical human spine loads during traumatomechanical investigations. In: Proceedings of the 1996 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 11-13, 1996; Dublin, Ireland.89-106.

2001

Yoganandan N, Kumaresan S, Pintar FA. Biomechanics of the cervical spine, II: cervical spine soft tissue responses and biomechanical modeling. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). January 2001;16(1):1-27.

1967

Mertz HJ Jr, Patrick LM. Investigation of the kinematics and kinetics of whiplash. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 10-11, 1967; Anaheim, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:267-317. SAE 670919.

2001

Cappon H, Philippens M, Van Ratingen M, Wismans J. Development and evaluation of a new rear-impact crash dummy: the RID2. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:225-238. SAE 2001-22-0010.

2000

Cappon HJ, Philippens MMGM, van Ratingen MR, Wismans JSHM. Evaluation of dummy behaviour during low severity rear impact. In: Proceedings of the 2000 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2000; Montpellier, France.53-66.

2006

Yoganandan N, Zhang J, Pintar FA, Liu YK. Lightweight low-profile nine-accelerometer package to obtain head angular accelerations in short-duration impacts. J Biomech. 2006;39(7):1347-1354.

2000

Muser MH, Walz FH, Zellmer H. Biomechanical significance of the rebound phase in low speed rear end impacts. In: Proceedings of the 2000 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2000; Montpellier, France.411-424.

2009

Kang Y, Moorhouse K, Bolte JH IV. Measurement of 3-D head kinematics in impact conditions employing six-accelerometers and three-angular rate sensors (6aω configuration). In: Proceedings of the 37th International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. 2009.

2001

Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.

1995

Barnsley L, Lord SM, Wallis BJ, Bogduk N. The prevalence of chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain after whiplash. Spine. January 1995;20(1):20-25.

1990

Bendjellal F, Oudenard L, Uriot J, Brigout C, Brun-Cassan F. Computation of Hybrid III head dynamics in various impact situations. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-232. SAE 902320.

2006

Netter FH. Atlas of Human Anatomy. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2006.

1986

Viano DC, Melvin JW, McCleary JD, Madeira RG, Shee TR, Horsch JD. Measurement of head dynamics and facial contact forces in the Hybrid III dummy. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:269-289. SAE 861891.

1997

Siegmund GP, King DJ, Lawrence JM, Wheeler JB, Brault JR, Smith TA. Head/neck kinematic response of human subjects in low-speed rear-end collisions. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:357-385. SAE 973341.

2009

Rhule H, Moorhouse K, Donnelly B, Stricklin J. Comparison of WorldSID and ES-2re biofidelity using an updated biofidelity ranking system. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.

2001

Schmitt K-U, Muser MH, Niederer P. A new neck injury criterion candidate for rear-end collisions taking into account shear forces and bending moments. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

2007

Sparks JL, Bolte JH IV, Dupaix RB, Jones KH, Steinberg SM, Herriott RG, Stammen JA, Donnelly BR. Using pressure to predict liver injury risk from blunt impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:401-432. SAE 2007-22-0017.

1999

Panjabi MM, Wang J-L, Delson N. Neck injury criterion based on intervertebral motions and its evaluation using an instrumented neck dummy. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.179-190.

1976

Krieger KW, Padgaonkar AJ, King AI. Full-scale experimental simulation of pedestrian-vehicle impacts. In: Proceedings of the 20th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 18-20, 1976; Dearborn, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:431-463. SAE 760813.

2002

Rhule HH, Maltese MR, Donnelly BR, Eppinger RH, Brunner JK, Bolte JH IV. Development of a new biofidelity ranking system for anthropomorphic test devices. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:477-512. SAE 2002-22-0024.

2008

Kent R, Stacey S, Kindig M, Woods W, Evans J, Rouhana SW, Higuchi K, Tanji H, St. Lawrence S, Arbogast KB. Biomechanical response of the pediatric abdomen, II: injuries and their correlation with engineering parameters. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2008;52:135-166.

1999

Davidsson J, Lovsund P, Ono K, Svensson MY, Inami S. A comparison between volunteer, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III performance in rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.165-178.

2000

Brault JR, Siegmund GP, Wheeler JB. Cervical muscle response during whiplash: evidence of a lengthening muscle contraction. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). July 2000;15(6):426-435.

2000

Svensson MY, Boström O, Davidsson J, Hansson H-A, Håland Y, Lövsund P, Suneson A, Säljö A. Neck injuries in car collisions: a review covering a possible injury mechanism and the development of a new rear-impact dummy. Accid Anal Prev. March 2000;32(2):167-175.

1986

Nusholtz GS, Kaiker PS, Lehman RJ. Critical limitations on significant factors in head injury research. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:237-267. SAE 861890.

2000

Ishikawa T, Okano N, Ishikura K, Ono K. An evaluation of prototype seats using BioRID-P3 and Hybrid III with TRLD neck. In: Proceedings of the 2000 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2000; Montpellier, France.379-391.

2007

Kitagawa Y, Yasuki T, Hasegawa J. Consideration of possible indicators for whiplash injury assessment and examination of seat design parameters using human FE model. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 18-21, 2007; Lyon, France.

2000

Deng B, Begeman PC, Yang KH, Tashman S, King AI. Kinematics of human cadaver cervical spine during low speed rear-end impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:171-188. SAE 2000-01-SC13.

1984

Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.

1996

Ono K, Kanno M. Influences of the physical parameters on the risk to neck injuries in low impact speed rear-end collisions. Accid Anal Prev. 1996;28(4):493-499.

1997

Ono K, Kaneoka K, Wittek A, Kajzer J. Cervical injury mechanism based on the analysis of human cervical vertebral motion and head-neck-torso kinematics during low speed rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-356. SAE 973340.

1977

Ewing CL, Thomas DJ, Majewski PL, Black R, Lustick L. Measurement of head, T1, and pelvic response to -Gx impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:509-545. SAE 770927.

2009

White NA, Begeman PC, Hardy WN, Yang KH, Ono K, Sato F, Kamiji K, Yasuki T, Bey MJ. Investigation of upper body and cervical spine kinematics of post mortem human subjects (PMHS) during low-speed, rear-end impacts. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress & Exhibition. April 20-23, 2009; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2009-01-0387.

2002

Philippens M, Cappon H, Van Ratingen M, Wismans J, Svensson M, Sirey F, Ono K, Nishimoto N, Matsuoka F. Comparison of the rear impact biofidelity of BioRID II and RID2. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:461-476. SAE 2002-22-0023.

2001

Sano K, Dokko Y, Negishi H, Goto T, Ono K, Warren J. Development of a whiplash injury reducing seat system using biorid ii dummy. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

2001

Gotou T, Ono K, Ito M, Matuoka F. A comparison between BioRID and Hybrid III head/neck/torso response in middle speed sled rear impact tests. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1996

Boström O, Svensson MY, Aldman B, Hansson HA, Håland Y, Lövsund P, Seeman T, Suneson A, Säljö A, Örtengren T. A new neck injury criterion candidate based on injury findings in the cervical spinal ganglia after experimental neck extension trauma. In: Proceedings of the 1996 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 11-13, 1996; Dublin, Ireland.123-136.

2003

Takhounts EG, Eppinger RH, Campbell JQ, Tannous RE, Power ED, Shook LS. On the development of the SIMon finite element head model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:107-133. SAE 2003-22-0007.

1992

Bendjellal F, Oudenard L, Uriot J, Brigout C, Brun-Cassan F. Measurement of head angular acceleration in crash tests: development of an electronic device for the hybrid iii dummy. In: Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1992; Seattle, WA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:13-28. SAE 922511.

1999

Davidsson J, Flogård A, Lörvsund P, Svensson MY. BioRID P3: design and performance compared to Hybrid Iii and volunteers in rear impacts of ΔV=7 km/h. In: Proceedings of the 43rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 25-27, 1999; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:253-265. SAE 99SC16.

1998

Panjabi MM, Nibu K, Cholewicki J. Whiplash injuries and the potential for mechanical instability. Eur Spine J. 1998;7(6):484-492.

1998

Panjabi MM, Cholewicki J, Nibu K, Babat LB, Dvorak J. Simulation of whiplash trauma using whole cervical spine specimens. Spine. January 1998;23(1):17-24.

2000

Eichberger A, Darok M, Steffan H, Leinzinger PE, Boström O, Svensson MY. Pressure measurements in the spinal canal of post-mortem human subjects during rear-end impact and correlation of results to the neck injury criterion. Accid Anal Prev. March 2000;32(2):251-260.

1971

Mertz HJ, Patrick LM. Strength and response of the human neck. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-255. SAE 710855.

Year	Entry
2012	Stammen JA, Herriott R, Kang Y-S, Bolte J, Dupaix R. Sequential biomechanics of the human upper thoracic spine and pectoral girdle. In: 56th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 14-17, 2012; Seattle, WA.151-162.
2012	Stammen JA, Herriott R, Kang Y-S, Dupaix R, Bolte J IV. Dynamic properties of the upper thoracic spine-pectoral girdle (UTS-PG) system and corresponding kinematics in PMHS sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. October 2012;56:65-104.

Year

Entry

2012

Stammen JA, Herriott R, Kang Y-S, Bolte J, Dupaix R. Sequential biomechanics of the human upper thoracic spine and pectoral girdle. In: 56th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 14-17, 2012; Seattle, WA.151-162.

2012

Stammen JA, Herriott R, Kang Y-S, Dupaix R, Bolte J IV. Dynamic properties of the upper thoracic spine-pectoral girdle (UTS-PG) system and corresponding kinematics in PMHS sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. October 2012;56:65-104.