A Numerical Side Impact Model to Investigate Thoracic Injury in Lateral Impact Scenarios

Although there have been tremendous improvements in crash safety there has been an increasing trend in side impact fatalities, rising from 30% to 37% of total fatalities from 1975 to 2004 (NHTSA, 2004). Between 1979 and 2004, 63% of AIS≥4 injuries in side impact resulted from thoracic trauma (NHTSA, 2004). Lateral impact fatalities, although decreasing in absolute numbers, now comprise a larger percentage of total fatalities. Safety features are typically more effective in frontal collisions compared to side impact due to the reduced distance between the occupant and intruding vehicle in side impact collisions. Therefore, an increased understanding of the mechanisms governing side impact injury is necessary in order to improve occupant safety in side impact auto crash.

This study builds on an advanced numerical human body model with focus on a detailed thoracic model, which has been validated using available post mortem human subject (PMHS) test data for pendulum and side sled impact tests (Forbes, 2005). Crash conditions were investigated through use of a modified side sled model used to reproduce the key conditions present in full scale crash tests. The model accounts for several important factors that contribute to occupant response based on the literature. These factors are; the relative velocities between the seat and door, the occupant to door distance, the door shape and compliance.

The side sled model was validated by reproducing the crash conditions present in FMVSS 214 and IIHS side impact tests and comparing the thoracic compression, velocity, and Viscous Criterion (VC) response determined by the model to the response of the ES-2 dummy used in the crash tests. Injury was predicted by evaluating VCmax, selected for its ability to predict rate-sensitive soft tissue injury during thoracic compression (Lau & Viano, 1986). The Ford Taurus FMVSS 214 and Nissan Maxima IIHS tests were selected from side impact crash test data found in the NHTSA database because they included factors not present in standard side impact test procedures. These factors were; the presence of door accelerometers used to provide input velocities to the side impact model and the use of a ES-2 (rather than the SID) to facilitate comparison of VC response to the human body model. Also, the two crash test procedures (FMVSS 214 & IIHS) were selected to ensure accurate side impact model response to different impact scenarios. The side impact model was shown to closely reproduce the timing and injury response of the full-scale FMVSS 214 side impact test of a Ford Taurus, as well as the IIHS side impact test of a Nissan Maxima.

The side impact model was then used to investigate the effects of door to occupant spacing, door velocity profile, armrest height, seat foam, restraint system, and arm position. It was found that the VCmax was controlled by both the first and second peaks typically found in door velocity profiles, but the effect of each varies depending on the situation.

This study found that VCmax was reduced by 73-88% when door intrusion was eliminated compared to the VC response incurred by an intruding door. Also, the presence of a deformable door based on physical geometry and material characteristics rather than a simplified rigid door reduced VCmax by 16% in this study.

The study on seat foam determined that significant effects on VC response can be made by modest adjustments in foam properties. Low stiffness seat foam was found to increase VCmax by 41% when compared to the VC response when using high stiffness foam.

Arm position has been proven to be a relevant factor in side impact crash. Positioning the arms parallel to the thorax, in the “down” position, caused a 42% increase in VCmax when compared to the VC response determined with the arms positioned at 45 degrees.

Finally, although restraint systems have limited influence on side impact crash safety compared to front and rear impacts, this study found that the presence of a pre-tensioning restraint system reduced VCmax by 13% when compared to the VC response of an unbelted occupant.

It should be noted that the current study was limited to velocity profiles obtained from a specific FMVSS 214 test and therefore results and observations are restricted to the confines of the input conditions used. However, the side impact model developed is a useful tool for evaluating factors influencing side impact and can be used to determine occupant response in any side impact crash scenario when the appropriate input conditions are provided.

Year	Entry
1971	Mertz HJ, Gadd CW. Thoracic tolerance to whole-body deceleration. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:135-157. SAE 710852.
1970	Yamada H. Strength of Biological Materials. Evans FG, ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins Company; 1970.
2003	Ruan J, El-Jawahri R, Chai L, Barbat S, Prasad P. Prediction and analysis of human thoracic impact responses and injuries in cadaver impacts using a full human body finite element model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:299-321. SAE 2003-22-0014.
1994	Huang Y, King AI, Cavanaugh JM. A MADYMO model of near-side human occupants in side impacts. J Biomech Eng. April 1994;116(2):228-235.
1990	Cavanaugh JM, Walilko TJ, Malhotra A, Zhu Y, King AI. Biomechanical response and injury tolerance of the thorax in twelve sled side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:23-38. SAE 902307.
1975	Neathery RF, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Prediction of thoracic injury from dummy responses. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:295-316. SAE 751151.
1988	Viano DC, Lau IV. A viscous tolerance criterion for soft tissue injury assessment. J Biomech. 1988;21(5):387-399.
2002	Oshita F, Omori K, Nakahira Y, Miki K. Development of a finite element model of the human body. In: 7th International LS-DYNA Users Conference. May 19-21, 2002; Detroit, MI.3-37–3-48.
1987	Viano DC. Evaluation of the SID dummy and TTI injury criterion for side impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:143-159. SAE 872208.
1994	Plank GR, Kleinberger M, Eppinger RH. Finite element modeling and analysis of thorax/restraint system interaction. In: Proceedings of the 14th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 23-26, 1994; Munich, Germany.210-219.
2001	Salisbury C. Spectral Analysis of Wave Propagation Through a Polymeric Hopkinson Bar [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2001.
1989	Viano DC. Biomechanical responses and injuries in blunt lateral impact. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:113-142. SAE 892432.
1991	Plank GR, Eppinger RH. An improved finite element model of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 4-7, 1991; Paris, France.902-907.
1970	Stapp JP. Voluntary human tolerance levels. In: Gurdjian ES, Lange WA, Patrick LM, Thomas LM, eds. Impact Injury and Crash Protection. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1970:308-349.
2003	Kuppa S, Eppinger RH, Mckoy F, Nguyen T, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Development of side impact thoracic injury criteria and their application to the modified ES-2 dummy with rib extensions (ES-2re). Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:189-210. SAE 2003-22-0010.
2005	de Lange R, van Rooij L, Mooi H, Wismans J. Objective biofidelity rating of a numerical human occupant model in frontal to lateral impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:457-479. SAE 2005-22-0020.
1966	McElhaney JH. Dynamic response of bone and muscle tissue. J Appl Physiol. 1966;21(4):1231-1236.
1998	Samaha RR, Molino LN, Maltese MR. Comparative performance testing of passenger cars relative to FMVSS 214 and the EU 96/EC/27 side impact regulations: phase I. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.1727-1759.
1973	Lobdell TE, Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Hering WE, Nahum AM. Impact response of the human thorax. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:201-243.
1974	Andriacchi T, Schultz A, Belytschko T, Galante J. A model for studies of mechanical interactions between the human spine and rib cage. J Biomech. November 1974;7(6):497-507.
2001	Samaha RR, Maltese MR, Bolte J. Evaluation of the ES-2 dummy in representative side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
1969	States JD. The abbreviated and the comprehensive research injury scales. In: Proceedings of the 13th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 2-4, 1969; Boston, MA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:282-294. SAE 690810.
2000	Iwamoto M, Miki K, Mohammad M, Nayef A, Yang KH, Begeman PC, King AI. Development of a finite element model of the human shoulder. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:281-297. SAE 2000-01-SC19.
2002	Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.
1974	Neathery RF. Analysis of chest impact response data and scaled performance recommendations. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:459-493. SAE 741188.
1981	Kroell CK, Pope ME, Viano DC, Warner CY, Allen SD. Interrelationship of velocity and chest compression in blunt thoracic impact to swine. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:549-579. SAE 811016.
1994	Cavanaugh JM, Walilko T, Walbridge A, Huang Y, King AI. An evaluation of TTI and ASA in SID side impact sled tests. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:293-308. SAE 942225.
1959	Eiband AM. Human Tolerance to Rapidly Applied Accelerations: A Summary of the Literature. Washington, DC: National Aeronatics and Space Administration; June 1959. NASA Memorandum 5-19-59E.
1996	Deng Y-C, Tzeng B. Side impact countermeasure study using a hybrid modeling technique. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-6, 1996; Albuquerque, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:43-50. SAE 962413.
1990	Cavanaugh JM, Walilko TJ, Malhotra A, Zhu Y, King AI. Biomechanical response and injury tolerance of the pelvis in twelve sled side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-12. SAE 902305.
1986	Morgan RM, Marcus JH, Eppinger RH. Side impact: the biofidelity of NHTSA's proposed ATD and efficacy of TTI. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:27-40. SAE 861877.
1993	Deng Y-C, Ng P. Simulation of vehicle structure and occupant response in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:175-183. SAE 933125.
1993	Cavanaugh JM, Zhu Y, Huang Y, King AI. Injury and response of the thorax in side impact cadaveric tests. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:199-221. SAE 933127.
1965	Patrick LM, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Forces on the human body in simulated crashes. In: Cragun MK, ed. Proceedings of the 9th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1965; Minneapolis, MN. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:237-259. SAE 650961.
1997	Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Hines MH, Maltese MR, McFadden J, Saul R, Eppinger R, Khaewpong N, Kleinberger M. Chestband analysis of human tolerance to side impact. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:63-74. SAE 973320.
2006	Forman J, Lessley D, Shaw CG, Evans J, Kent R, Rouhana SW, Prasad P. Thoracic response of belted PMHS, the Hybrid III, and the THOR-NT mid-sized male surrogates in low-speed, frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:191-215. SAE 2006-22-0009.
2009	Watson B, Cronin D, Campbell B. Study of vehicle dynamics and occupant response in side impact crash tests. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.
2005	Gennarelli TA, Wodzin E, eds. The Abbreviated Injury Scale 2005. Barrington, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); 2005.
2002	Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2002.
1995	Wang H-CK. Development of a Side Impact Finite Element Human Thoracic Model [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; 1995.
1995	Viano D, Fan A, Ueno K, Walilko T, Cavanaugh J, King A. Biofidelity and injury assessment in Eurosid I and Biosid. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:307-325. SAE 952731.
1977	Sundaram SH, Feng CC. Finite element analysis of the human thorax. J Biomech. 1977;10(8):505-516.
1990	The Abbreviated Injury Scale-1990 Revision. Des Plaines, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); 1990.
1976	Severy DM, Blaisdell DM, Kerkhoff JF. Automotive seat design and collision performance. In: Proceedings of the 20th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 18-20, 1976; Dearborn, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:305-334. SAE 760810.
2008	Yuen KF, Cronin DS, Deng YC. Lung response and injury in side impact conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2008 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 17-19, 2008; Bern, Switzerland.87-98.
1989	Plank GR, Eppinger RH. Computed dynamic response of the human thorax from a finite element model. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.665-672.
2002	Rhule HH, Maltese MR, Donnelly BR, Eppinger RH, Brunner JK, Bolte JH IV. Development of a new biofidelity ranking system for anthropomorphic test devices. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:477-512. SAE 2002-22-0024.
2001	Shah CS, Yang KH, Hardy W, Wang HK, King AI. Development of a computer model to predict aortic rupture due to impact loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:161-182. SAE 2001-22-0007.
1971	Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:84-134. SAE 710851.
1987	Viano DC. Evaluation of the benefit of energy-absorbing material in side impact protection: part I. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:185-203. SAE 872212.
1987	Viano DC. Evaluation of the benefit of energy-absorbing material in side impact protection: Part II. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:205-224. SAE 872213.
1974	Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax II. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:383-457. SAE 741187.
1984	Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.
1999	Deng Y-C, Kong W, Ho H. Development of a finite element human thorax model for impact injury studies. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. March 1-4, 1999; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 1999-01-0715.
1981	Lau V-K, Viano DC. Influence of impact velocity on the severity of nonpenetrating hepatic injury. J Trauma. February 1981;21(2):115-123.
1986	Lau IV, Viano DC. The viscous criterion: bases and applications of an injury severity index for soft tissues. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:123-142. SAE 861882.
1981	Kallieris D, Mattern R, Schmidt G, Eppinger RH. Quantification of side impact responses and injuries. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:329-366. SAE 811009.
1998	Happee R, Hoofman M, van den Kroonenberg AJ, Morsink P, Wismans J. A mathematical human body model for frontal and rearward seated automotive impact loading. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:75-88. SAE 983150.
1989	Viano DC, Lau IV, Asbury C, King AI, Begeman P. Biomechanics of the human chest, abdomen, and pelvis in lateral impact. In: 33rd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 2-4, 1989; Baltimore, MD.367-382.
1994	Huang Y, King AI, Cavanaugh JM. Finite element modeling of gross motion of human cadavers in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:35-53. SAE 942207.
2005	Forbes PA. Development of a Human Body Model for the Analysis of Side Impact Automotive Thoracic Trauma [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2005.
2006	Moore KL, Dalley AF. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.
1985	Viano DC, Lau IV. Thoracic impact: a viscous tolerance criterion. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.104-114. SAE 856025.
1989	Deng Y-C. The importance of the test method in determining the effects of door padding in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:79-85. SAE 892429.
1968	Gadd CW, Patrick LM. System versus laboratory impact tests for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition. January 8-12, 1968; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 680053.
1989	Viano DC, King AI, Melvin JW, Weber K. Injury biomechanics research: an essential element in the prevention of trauma. J Biomech. 1989;22(5):403-417.

Year

Entry

1971

Mertz HJ, Gadd CW. Thoracic tolerance to whole-body deceleration. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:135-157. SAE 710852.

1970

Yamada H. Strength of Biological Materials. Evans FG, ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins Company; 1970.

2003

Ruan J, El-Jawahri R, Chai L, Barbat S, Prasad P. Prediction and analysis of human thoracic impact responses and injuries in cadaver impacts using a full human body finite element model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:299-321. SAE 2003-22-0014.

1994

Huang Y, King AI, Cavanaugh JM. A MADYMO model of near-side human occupants in side impacts. J Biomech Eng. April 1994;116(2):228-235.

1990

Cavanaugh JM, Walilko TJ, Malhotra A, Zhu Y, King AI. Biomechanical response and injury tolerance of the thorax in twelve sled side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:23-38. SAE 902307.

1975

Neathery RF, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Prediction of thoracic injury from dummy responses. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:295-316. SAE 751151.

1988

Viano DC, Lau IV. A viscous tolerance criterion for soft tissue injury assessment. J Biomech. 1988;21(5):387-399.

2002

Oshita F, Omori K, Nakahira Y, Miki K. Development of a finite element model of the human body. In: 7th International LS-DYNA Users Conference. May 19-21, 2002; Detroit, MI.3-37–3-48.

1987

Viano DC. Evaluation of the SID dummy and TTI injury criterion for side impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:143-159. SAE 872208.

1994

Plank GR, Kleinberger M, Eppinger RH. Finite element modeling and analysis of thorax/restraint system interaction. In: Proceedings of the 14th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 23-26, 1994; Munich, Germany.210-219.

2001

Salisbury C. Spectral Analysis of Wave Propagation Through a Polymeric Hopkinson Bar [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2001.

1989

Viano DC. Biomechanical responses and injuries in blunt lateral impact. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:113-142. SAE 892432.

1991

Plank GR, Eppinger RH. An improved finite element model of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 4-7, 1991; Paris, France.902-907.

1970

Stapp JP. Voluntary human tolerance levels. In: Gurdjian ES, Lange WA, Patrick LM, Thomas LM, eds. Impact Injury and Crash Protection. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1970:308-349.

2003

Kuppa S, Eppinger RH, Mckoy F, Nguyen T, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Development of side impact thoracic injury criteria and their application to the modified ES-2 dummy with rib extensions (ES-2re). Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:189-210. SAE 2003-22-0010.

2005

de Lange R, van Rooij L, Mooi H, Wismans J. Objective biofidelity rating of a numerical human occupant model in frontal to lateral impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:457-479. SAE 2005-22-0020.

1966

McElhaney JH. Dynamic response of bone and muscle tissue. J Appl Physiol. 1966;21(4):1231-1236.

1998

Samaha RR, Molino LN, Maltese MR. Comparative performance testing of passenger cars relative to FMVSS 214 and the EU 96/EC/27 side impact regulations: phase I. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.1727-1759.

1973

Lobdell TE, Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Hering WE, Nahum AM. Impact response of the human thorax. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:201-243.

1974

Andriacchi T, Schultz A, Belytschko T, Galante J. A model for studies of mechanical interactions between the human spine and rib cage. J Biomech. November 1974;7(6):497-507.

2001

Samaha RR, Maltese MR, Bolte J. Evaluation of the ES-2 dummy in representative side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1969

States JD. The abbreviated and the comprehensive research injury scales. In: Proceedings of the 13th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 2-4, 1969; Boston, MA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:282-294. SAE 690810.

2000

Iwamoto M, Miki K, Mohammad M, Nayef A, Yang KH, Begeman PC, King AI. Development of a finite element model of the human shoulder. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:281-297. SAE 2000-01-SC19.

2002

Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.

1974

Neathery RF. Analysis of chest impact response data and scaled performance recommendations. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:459-493. SAE 741188.

1981

Kroell CK, Pope ME, Viano DC, Warner CY, Allen SD. Interrelationship of velocity and chest compression in blunt thoracic impact to swine. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:549-579. SAE 811016.

1994

Cavanaugh JM, Walilko T, Walbridge A, Huang Y, King AI. An evaluation of TTI and ASA in SID side impact sled tests. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:293-308. SAE 942225.

1959

Eiband AM. Human Tolerance to Rapidly Applied Accelerations: A Summary of the Literature. Washington, DC: National Aeronatics and Space Administration; June 1959. NASA Memorandum 5-19-59E.

1996

Deng Y-C, Tzeng B. Side impact countermeasure study using a hybrid modeling technique. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-6, 1996; Albuquerque, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:43-50. SAE 962413.

1990

Cavanaugh JM, Walilko TJ, Malhotra A, Zhu Y, King AI. Biomechanical response and injury tolerance of the pelvis in twelve sled side impacts. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-12. SAE 902305.

1986

Morgan RM, Marcus JH, Eppinger RH. Side impact: the biofidelity of NHTSA's proposed ATD and efficacy of TTI. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:27-40. SAE 861877.

1993

Deng Y-C, Ng P. Simulation of vehicle structure and occupant response in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:175-183. SAE 933125.

1993

Cavanaugh JM, Zhu Y, Huang Y, King AI. Injury and response of the thorax in side impact cadaveric tests. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:199-221. SAE 933127.

1965

Patrick LM, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Forces on the human body in simulated crashes. In: Cragun MK, ed. Proceedings of the 9th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1965; Minneapolis, MN. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:237-259. SAE 650961.

1997

Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Hines MH, Maltese MR, McFadden J, Saul R, Eppinger R, Khaewpong N, Kleinberger M. Chestband analysis of human tolerance to side impact. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:63-74. SAE 973320.

2006

Forman J, Lessley D, Shaw CG, Evans J, Kent R, Rouhana SW, Prasad P. Thoracic response of belted PMHS, the Hybrid III, and the THOR-NT mid-sized male surrogates in low-speed, frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:191-215. SAE 2006-22-0009.

2009

Watson B, Cronin D, Campbell B. Study of vehicle dynamics and occupant response in side impact crash tests. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.

2005

Gennarelli TA, Wodzin E, eds. The Abbreviated Injury Scale 2005. Barrington, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); 2005.

2002

Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2002.

1995

Wang H-CK. Development of a Side Impact Finite Element Human Thoracic Model [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; 1995.

1995

Viano D, Fan A, Ueno K, Walilko T, Cavanaugh J, King A. Biofidelity and injury assessment in Eurosid I and Biosid. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:307-325. SAE 952731.

1977

Sundaram SH, Feng CC. Finite element analysis of the human thorax. J Biomech. 1977;10(8):505-516.

1990

The Abbreviated Injury Scale-1990 Revision. Des Plaines, IL: Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); 1990.

1976

Severy DM, Blaisdell DM, Kerkhoff JF. Automotive seat design and collision performance. In: Proceedings of the 20th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 18-20, 1976; Dearborn, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:305-334. SAE 760810.

2008

Yuen KF, Cronin DS, Deng YC. Lung response and injury in side impact conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2008 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 17-19, 2008; Bern, Switzerland.87-98.

1989

Plank GR, Eppinger RH. Computed dynamic response of the human thorax from a finite element model. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.665-672.

2002

Rhule HH, Maltese MR, Donnelly BR, Eppinger RH, Brunner JK, Bolte JH IV. Development of a new biofidelity ranking system for anthropomorphic test devices. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:477-512. SAE 2002-22-0024.

2001

Shah CS, Yang KH, Hardy W, Wang HK, King AI. Development of a computer model to predict aortic rupture due to impact loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:161-182. SAE 2001-22-0007.

1971

Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:84-134. SAE 710851.

1987

Viano DC. Evaluation of the benefit of energy-absorbing material in side impact protection: part I. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:185-203. SAE 872212.

1987

Viano DC. Evaluation of the benefit of energy-absorbing material in side impact protection: Part II. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:205-224. SAE 872213.

1974

Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax II. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:383-457. SAE 741187.

1984

Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.

1999

Deng Y-C, Kong W, Ho H. Development of a finite element human thorax model for impact injury studies. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. March 1-4, 1999; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 1999-01-0715.

1981

Lau V-K, Viano DC. Influence of impact velocity on the severity of nonpenetrating hepatic injury. J Trauma. February 1981;21(2):115-123.

1986

Lau IV, Viano DC. The viscous criterion: bases and applications of an injury severity index for soft tissues. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:123-142. SAE 861882.

1981

Kallieris D, Mattern R, Schmidt G, Eppinger RH. Quantification of side impact responses and injuries. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:329-366. SAE 811009.

1998

Happee R, Hoofman M, van den Kroonenberg AJ, Morsink P, Wismans J. A mathematical human body model for frontal and rearward seated automotive impact loading. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:75-88. SAE 983150.

1989

Viano DC, Lau IV, Asbury C, King AI, Begeman P. Biomechanics of the human chest, abdomen, and pelvis in lateral impact. In: 33rd Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 2-4, 1989; Baltimore, MD.367-382.

1994

Huang Y, King AI, Cavanaugh JM. Finite element modeling of gross motion of human cadavers in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:35-53. SAE 942207.

2005

Forbes PA. Development of a Human Body Model for the Analysis of Side Impact Automotive Thoracic Trauma [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2005.

2006

Moore KL, Dalley AF. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.

1985

Viano DC, Lau IV. Thoracic impact: a viscous tolerance criterion. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.104-114. SAE 856025.

1989

Deng Y-C. The importance of the test method in determining the effects of door padding in side impact. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:79-85. SAE 892429.

1968

Gadd CW, Patrick LM. System versus laboratory impact tests for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition. January 8-12, 1968; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 680053.

1989

Viano DC, King AI, Melvin JW, Weber K. Injury biomechanics research: an essential element in the prevention of trauma. J Biomech. 1989;22(5):403-417.

Year	Entry
2009	Watson B, Cronin D, Campbell B. Study of vehicle dynamics and occupant response in side impact crash tests. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.
2009	Campbell B, Cronin D, Deng Y-C. Coupled human body side impact model to predict thoracic injury. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.
2015	Gierczycka D, Cronin DS. Investigation of human body model response to different lateral loading conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2015 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 9-11, 2015; Lyon, France.706-707.
2016	Gierczycka D, Malcolm S, Cronin DS. Occupant-restraint-vehicle interaction in side impact evaluated using a human body model. In: Proceedings of the 12th Ohio State University Injury Biomechanics Symposium. June 5-7, 2016; Columbus, OH.
2010	Watson B. Evaluation of Thoracic Response in Side Impact Crash [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2010.
2018	Gierczycka D. Investigation of Thorax Response and Potential for Injury in Side Impacts Using Integrated Detailed Human and Vehicle Finite-Element Models [PhD thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2018.

Year

Entry

2009

Campbell B, Cronin D, Deng Y-C. Coupled human body side impact model to predict thoracic injury. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 15-18, 2009; Stuttgart, Germany.

2015

Gierczycka D, Cronin DS. Investigation of human body model response to different lateral loading conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2015 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 9-11, 2015; Lyon, France.706-707.

2016

Gierczycka D, Malcolm S, Cronin DS. Occupant-restraint-vehicle interaction in side impact evaluated using a human body model. In: Proceedings of the 12th Ohio State University Injury Biomechanics Symposium. June 5-7, 2016; Columbus, OH.

2010

Watson B. Evaluation of Thoracic Response in Side Impact Crash [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2010.

2018

Gierczycka D. Investigation of Thorax Response and Potential for Injury in Side Impacts Using Integrated Detailed Human and Vehicle Finite-Element Models [PhD thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2018.