Interior Frontal Crash Protection for Passenger Cars At High Delta-V: Possibilities and Limitations

The purpose of this study was to analyse the possibilities to design an effective interior restraint system for the driver of a passenger car subjected to fully distributed frontal crashes in the speed range of 56 to 80 km/h (35 to 50 mph). In order to limit the research area the issue of structural integrity of the occupant compartment will not been addressed in this study. In other words it has been assumed that the frontal crush zone is large enough to absorb the kinetic energy and that the occupant compartment is not heavily deformed.

A computer model of a driver restraint system including an airbag, a seat belt, knee padding, seat and a steering wheel with column has been developed with a 50%-ile crash test dummy as the driver. The computer model results have been validated by means of mechanical sled tests.

A decelerating sled has been used for all the mechanical testing. The sled has been equipped with a mock-up of the frontal section of the occupant compartment of a passenger car including the steering wheel, steering column, seat and the driver restraint system consisting of an airbag, a knee restraint and a three-point seat belt.

The crash pulse at 56 km/h, used in simulation and experimentation, has been selected to be representative for a mid size car from the nineties. To assess a realistic crash pulse for a high velocity fully distributed frontal crash with amid size car from that period a crash test was performed at 80 km/h.

A number of input parameters describing the restraint system have been selected for a two level variation analysis using design of experiment technique (fractional factorial design at two levels). The restraint configurations defined in the matrix have been run through the computer model at 56 and 80 km/h impact velocities.

The variables with the greatest effect on the dummy response have been identified. Some of the restraint system configurations have also been tested on the mechanical sled.

The results show that, for a given crash pulse, it is possible to design an interior restraint system with a low risk of injury at 80 km/h impact given that no significant intrusions into the occupant compartment occur.

The importance of tuning the characteristics of the restraint systems to the condition at hands i.e. the crash severity to achieve improvements in driver protection is also demonstrated.

Year	Entry
1971	Mertz HJ, Gadd CW. Thoracic tolerance to whole-body deceleration. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:135-157. SAE 710852.
2001	Witteman WJ, Kriens RFC. The necessity of an adaptive vehicle structure to optimize deceleration pulses for different crash velocities. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
1990	Nieboer JJ, Wismans J, de Coo PJA. Airbag modelling techniques. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:243-258. SAE 902322.
1962	Aldman B. Biodynamic studies on impact protection. Acta Physiol Scand. December 1962;56(suppl 192):1-80.
2002	Kirk A, Frampton R, Thomas P. An evaluation of airbag benefits/disbenefits in european vehicles: a combined statistical and case study approach. In: Proceedings of the 2002 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 18-20, 2002; Munich, Germany.
1998	Hoofman M, van Ratingen M, Wismans J. Evaluation of the dynamic and kinematic performance of the THOR dummy: neck performance. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.497-511.
1983	Aldman B, Mellander H, Mackay M. The structure of European research into the biomechanics of impacts. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1983; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:129-136. SAE 831610.
1998	Kleinberger M, Sun E, Eppinger R, Kuppa S, Saul R. Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); September 1998.
1985	Skötte L-G, Mellander H, Biss DJ. The use of the DRACR airbag simulation model as a design tool. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.448-454. SAE 856064.
1967	Bohlin NI. A statistical analysis of 28,000 accident cases with emphasis on occupant restraint value. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 10-11, 1967; Anaheim, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:455-478. SAE 670925.
2000	Eppinger R, Sun E, Kuppa S, Saul R. Supplement: Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems - II. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); March 2000.
1976	Aasberg A, Larsen LS, Runberger S. From experimental to production safety vehicles. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.474-483.
1976	Strother C, Fitzpatrick MU, Egbert TP. Development of advanced restraint systems for Minicats RSV. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.451-468.
1980	Biss DJ, Fitzpatrick MU, Zinke DT, Strother C, Kirchoff G. A systems analysis approach to airbag design and development. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 21-24, 1980; Wolfsburg, Germany.333-361.
1988	Koch M. Recent work with a method for the fitting of injury versus exposure data into a risk function. In: Proceedings of the 1988 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 14-16, 1988; Bergisch-Gladbach, West Germany.23-34.
1977	Viano DC. Considerations for a femur injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:445-473. SAE 770925.
1975	Viano DC, Schreck RM, States JD. Dive impact tests and medical aspects of a 70 year old stunt diver. In: 19th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). November 20, 1975; San Diego, CA.101-115.
2000	Mackay M, Hassan AM. Age and gender effects on injury outcome for restrained occupants in frontal crashes: a comparison of UK and US data bases. In: 44th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 2-4, 2000; Chicago, IL.
1971	Mertz HJ, Patrick LM. Strength and response of the human neck. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-255. SAE 710855.
1994	Planath-Skogsmo I, Nilsson R. Frontal crash tests: a comparison of methods. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:345-353. SAE 942228.
1962	Tourin B, Aldman B, Michelson I, Mitchell J. Restraining characteristics of harnesses. In: Proceedings of the 6th Stapp Car Crash and Field Demonstration Conference. November 7-9, 1962; Holloman Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:137-166.
1959	Eiband AM. Human Tolerance to Rapidly Applied Accelerations: A Summary of the Literature. Washington, DC: National Aeronatics and Space Administration; June 1959. NASA Memorandum 5-19-59E.
1980	Scholz HJ. The Daimler-Benz development of a final production air bag system for the U.S.A. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 21-24, 1980; Wolfsburg, Germany.361-369.
1998	Kuppa SM, Eppinger RH. Development of an improved thoracic injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-153. SAE 983153.
1982	Kallieris D, Mellander H, Schmidt G, Barz J, Mattern R. Comparison between frontal impact tests with cadavers and dummies in a simulated true car restrained environment. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1982; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:353-367. SAE 821170.
1989	Korner J. A method for evaluating occupant protection by correlating accident data with laboratory test data. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 27–March 3, 1989; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 890747.
1977	Foster JK, Kortge JO, Wolanin MJ. Hybrid III: a biomechanically-based crash test dummy. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:975-1014. SAE 770938.
1998	Rangarajan N, Shams T, McDonald J, White R, Oster J, Hjerpe E, Haffner M. Response of Thor in frontal sled testing in different restraint conditions. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.513-525.
1984	Prasad P, Mertz HJ. The position of the United States delegation to the ISO working group 6 on the use of HIC in the automotive environment. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 20-23, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 851246.
1982	Almqvist R, Mellander H, Koch M. Frontal crash protection in a modern car concept. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.154-163.
2000	Newman JA, Shewchenko N, Welbourne E. A proposed new biomechanical head injury assessment function: the maximum power index. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:215-247. SAE 2000-01-SC16.
1998	Aldman B. Why and how IRCOBI came into existence. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.1-6.
2001	Haffner M, Eppinger R, Rangarajan N, Shams T, Artis M, Beach D. Foundations and elements of the NHTSA Thor ALPHA ATD design. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
1990	Viano DC, Arepally S. Assessing the safety performance of occupant restraint systems. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:301-327. SAE 902328.
1989	Mellander H, Ivarsson J, Korner J, Nilsson S. Side impact protection system: a description of the technical solutions and the statistical and experimental tools. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.969-976.
1998	Rangarajan N, White R Jr, Shams T, Beach D, Fullerton J, Haffner MP, Eppinger RE, Pritz H, Rhule D, Dalmotas D, Fournier E. Design and performance of the THOR advanced frontal crash test dummy thorax and abdomen assemblies. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.1999-2010.
1991	Norin H, Jernström C, Koch M, Ryrberg S, Svensson S-E. Avoiding sub-optimized occupant safety by multiple speed impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 4-7, 1991; Paris, France.1021-1027.
1987	Horsch JD. Evaluation of occupant protection from responses measured in laboratory tests. 1987. SAE 870222.
2002	Kent RW. Dynamic Response of the Thorax: Restraint-Specific Hard Tissue Injury Prediction [PhD thesis]. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia; January 2002.
1999	Martinez L, Vera C, Lasaga F, Garcia M. An advanced 50th percentile THOR dummy database. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.405-421.
1997	Mertz HJ, Prasad P, Irwin AL. Injury risk curves for children and adults in frontal and rear collisions. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:13-30. SAE 973318.
1977	Adomeit D. Evaluation methods for the biomechanical quality of restraint systems during frontal impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:913-932. SAE 770936.
1975	Adomeit D, Heger A. Motion sequence criteria and design proposals for restraint devices in order to avoid unfavorable biomechanic conditions and submarining. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-165. SAE 751146.
2000	Xu L, Jensen J, Byrnes K, Kim A, Agaram V, Davis KL, Hultman RW, Kostyniuk G, Marshall ME, Mertz H, Nusholtz G, Rouhana S, Scherer R. Comparative performance evaluation of THOR and Hybrid III. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress. March 6-9, 2000; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2000-01-0161.
1996	Mertz HJ, Prasad P, Nusholtz G. Head injury risk assessment for forehead impacts. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 26–March 1, 1996; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 960099.
1997	Bendjellal F, Walfisch G, Steyer C, Ventre P, Forêt Bruno J-Y, Trosseille X, Lassau J-P. The programmed restraint system: a lesson from accidentology. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:249-263. SAE 973333.
1966	Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.
1978	Svensson LG. Means for effective improvement of the three-point seat belt in frontal crashes. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:451-479. SAE 780898.
1998	Sparke LJ. Restraint system optkmisation for minimum societal harm. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.255-258.
1989	Johansson L, Billig J, Mellander H, Werner B, Hora P. The development of an advanced airbag concept. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.299-303.
1997	Viano D. Brain Injury Biomechanics in Closed-Head Impact: Studies on Injury Epidemiology, Tolerance Criteria, Biomechanics and Traffic Injury Prevention [PhD thesis]. Solna, Sweden: Karolinska Institutet; May 1997.
1982	Malliaris AC, Hitchcock R, Hedlund J. A search for priorities in crash protection. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 22-26, 1982; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 820242.

Year

Entry

1971

Mertz HJ, Gadd CW. Thoracic tolerance to whole-body deceleration. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:135-157. SAE 710852.

2001

Witteman WJ, Kriens RFC. The necessity of an adaptive vehicle structure to optimize deceleration pulses for different crash velocities. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1990

Nieboer JJ, Wismans J, de Coo PJA. Airbag modelling techniques. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:243-258. SAE 902322.

1962

Aldman B. Biodynamic studies on impact protection. Acta Physiol Scand. December 1962;56(suppl 192):1-80.

2002

Kirk A, Frampton R, Thomas P. An evaluation of airbag benefits/disbenefits in european vehicles: a combined statistical and case study approach. In: Proceedings of the 2002 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 18-20, 2002; Munich, Germany.

1998

Hoofman M, van Ratingen M, Wismans J. Evaluation of the dynamic and kinematic performance of the THOR dummy: neck performance. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.497-511.

1983

Aldman B, Mellander H, Mackay M. The structure of European research into the biomechanics of impacts. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1983; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:129-136. SAE 831610.

1998

Kleinberger M, Sun E, Eppinger R, Kuppa S, Saul R. Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); September 1998.

1985

Skötte L-G, Mellander H, Biss DJ. The use of the DRACR airbag simulation model as a design tool. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.448-454. SAE 856064.

1967

Bohlin NI. A statistical analysis of 28,000 accident cases with emphasis on occupant restraint value. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 10-11, 1967; Anaheim, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:455-478. SAE 670925.

2000

Eppinger R, Sun E, Kuppa S, Saul R. Supplement: Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems - II. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); March 2000.

1976

Aasberg A, Larsen LS, Runberger S. From experimental to production safety vehicles. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.474-483.

1976

Strother C, Fitzpatrick MU, Egbert TP. Development of advanced restraint systems for Minicats RSV. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.451-468.

1980

Biss DJ, Fitzpatrick MU, Zinke DT, Strother C, Kirchoff G. A systems analysis approach to airbag design and development. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 21-24, 1980; Wolfsburg, Germany.333-361.

1988

Koch M. Recent work with a method for the fitting of injury versus exposure data into a risk function. In: Proceedings of the 1988 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 14-16, 1988; Bergisch-Gladbach, West Germany.23-34.

1977

Viano DC. Considerations for a femur injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:445-473. SAE 770925.

1975

Viano DC, Schreck RM, States JD. Dive impact tests and medical aspects of a 70 year old stunt diver. In: 19th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). November 20, 1975; San Diego, CA.101-115.

2000

Mackay M, Hassan AM. Age and gender effects on injury outcome for restrained occupants in frontal crashes: a comparison of UK and US data bases. In: 44th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 2-4, 2000; Chicago, IL.

1971

Mertz HJ, Patrick LM. Strength and response of the human neck. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-255. SAE 710855.

1994

Planath-Skogsmo I, Nilsson R. Frontal crash tests: a comparison of methods. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:345-353. SAE 942228.

1962

Tourin B, Aldman B, Michelson I, Mitchell J. Restraining characteristics of harnesses. In: Proceedings of the 6th Stapp Car Crash and Field Demonstration Conference. November 7-9, 1962; Holloman Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:137-166.

1959

Eiband AM. Human Tolerance to Rapidly Applied Accelerations: A Summary of the Literature. Washington, DC: National Aeronatics and Space Administration; June 1959. NASA Memorandum 5-19-59E.

1980

Scholz HJ. The Daimler-Benz development of a final production air bag system for the U.S.A. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 21-24, 1980; Wolfsburg, Germany.361-369.

1998

Kuppa SM, Eppinger RH. Development of an improved thoracic injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-153. SAE 983153.

1982

Kallieris D, Mellander H, Schmidt G, Barz J, Mattern R. Comparison between frontal impact tests with cadavers and dummies in a simulated true car restrained environment. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1982; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:353-367. SAE 821170.

1989

Korner J. A method for evaluating occupant protection by correlating accident data with laboratory test data. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 27–March 3, 1989; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 890747.

1977

Foster JK, Kortge JO, Wolanin MJ. Hybrid III: a biomechanically-based crash test dummy. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:975-1014. SAE 770938.

1998

Rangarajan N, Shams T, McDonald J, White R, Oster J, Hjerpe E, Haffner M. Response of Thor in frontal sled testing in different restraint conditions. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.513-525.

1984

Prasad P, Mertz HJ. The position of the United States delegation to the ISO working group 6 on the use of HIC in the automotive environment. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 20-23, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 851246.

1982

Almqvist R, Mellander H, Koch M. Frontal crash protection in a modern car concept. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.154-163.

2000

Newman JA, Shewchenko N, Welbourne E. A proposed new biomechanical head injury assessment function: the maximum power index. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:215-247. SAE 2000-01-SC16.

1998

Aldman B. Why and how IRCOBI came into existence. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.1-6.

2001

Haffner M, Eppinger R, Rangarajan N, Shams T, Artis M, Beach D. Foundations and elements of the NHTSA Thor ALPHA ATD design. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1990

Viano DC, Arepally S. Assessing the safety performance of occupant restraint systems. In: Proceedings of the 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-7, 1990; Orlando, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:301-327. SAE 902328.

1989

Mellander H, Ivarsson J, Korner J, Nilsson S. Side impact protection system: a description of the technical solutions and the statistical and experimental tools. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.969-976.

1998

Rangarajan N, White R Jr, Shams T, Beach D, Fullerton J, Haffner MP, Eppinger RE, Pritz H, Rhule D, Dalmotas D, Fournier E. Design and performance of the THOR advanced frontal crash test dummy thorax and abdomen assemblies. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.1999-2010.

1991

Norin H, Jernström C, Koch M, Ryrberg S, Svensson S-E. Avoiding sub-optimized occupant safety by multiple speed impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 4-7, 1991; Paris, France.1021-1027.

1987

Horsch JD. Evaluation of occupant protection from responses measured in laboratory tests. 1987. SAE 870222.

2002

Kent RW. Dynamic Response of the Thorax: Restraint-Specific Hard Tissue Injury Prediction [PhD thesis]. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia; January 2002.

1999

Martinez L, Vera C, Lasaga F, Garcia M. An advanced 50th percentile THOR dummy database. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.405-421.

1997

Mertz HJ, Prasad P, Irwin AL. Injury risk curves for children and adults in frontal and rear collisions. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:13-30. SAE 973318.

1977

Adomeit D. Evaluation methods for the biomechanical quality of restraint systems during frontal impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:913-932. SAE 770936.

1975

Adomeit D, Heger A. Motion sequence criteria and design proposals for restraint devices in order to avoid unfavorable biomechanic conditions and submarining. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-165. SAE 751146.

2000

Xu L, Jensen J, Byrnes K, Kim A, Agaram V, Davis KL, Hultman RW, Kostyniuk G, Marshall ME, Mertz H, Nusholtz G, Rouhana S, Scherer R. Comparative performance evaluation of THOR and Hybrid III. In: Proceedings of the SAE World Congress. March 6-9, 2000; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2000-01-0161.

1996

Mertz HJ, Prasad P, Nusholtz G. Head injury risk assessment for forehead impacts. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 26–March 1, 1996; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 960099.

1997

Bendjellal F, Walfisch G, Steyer C, Ventre P, Forêt Bruno J-Y, Trosseille X, Lassau J-P. The programmed restraint system: a lesson from accidentology. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:249-263. SAE 973333.

1966

Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.

1978

Svensson LG. Means for effective improvement of the three-point seat belt in frontal crashes. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:451-479. SAE 780898.

1998

Sparke LJ. Restraint system optkmisation for minimum societal harm. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.255-258.

1989

Johansson L, Billig J, Mellander H, Werner B, Hora P. The development of an advanced airbag concept. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). May 29–June 1, 1989; Göteborg, Sweden.299-303.

1997

Viano D. Brain Injury Biomechanics in Closed-Head Impact: Studies on Injury Epidemiology, Tolerance Criteria, Biomechanics and Traffic Injury Prevention [PhD thesis]. Solna, Sweden: Karolinska Institutet; May 1997.

1982

Malliaris AC, Hitchcock R, Hedlund J. A search for priorities in crash protection. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 22-26, 1982; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 820242.

Year	Entry
2006	Pipkorn B, Mellander H, Olsson J, Håland Y. On the combined effect of the variation of driver restraint configuration and crash pulse for high and very high impact velocities. In: Proceedings of the 2006 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2006; Madrid, Spain.199-211.

Year

Entry

2006

Pipkorn B, Mellander H, Olsson J, Håland Y. On the combined effect of the variation of driver restraint configuration and crash pulse for high and very high impact velocities. In: Proceedings of the 2006 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2006; Madrid, Spain.199-211.