The Influence of Impact Mass, Inbound Velocity and System Compliance on the Dynamic Response of a Hybrid III Head Form

Sport helmet certification standards solely prescribe the use of vertical drop towers in their protocols; a mechanism which mimics the head impacting the ground. Athletes are more commonly injured via collisions with other players; however, and the current certification standards do not incorporate this mechanism of injury in their test methodologies. At the most basic level, these two injury mechanisms can be differentiated by impact mass. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of impact mass on the dynamic response of a Hybrid III head form. This was carried out by impacting the front location of the un-helmeted head form over a range of inbound velocities (2.0 m/s, 3.0 m/s and 4.0 m/s) and system compliances (rigid neck, compliant neck and unrestrained head and neck) on two different test systems represented by impact mass (monorail vertical drop tower and horizontal linear impactor) to more completely characterize the relationship. Significant main effects and interactions were observed for impact mass, inbound velocity and system compliance on peak resultant translational acceleration and peak resultant rotational acceleration (p<0.05). Impacts on the monorail vertical drop tower (greater impact mass), resulted in higher acceleration values than the same impacts on the horizontal linear impactor, implying that the monorail generates more severe impacts. The greatest accelerations were also seen at the higher velocities, indicating that athletes impacted at higher velocities are at greater risk of suffering mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). The relationship was non-linear for system compliance: the least compliant system generated the lowest translational accelerations, followed by the most compliant system, and ending with the intermediate level of system compliance. Rotational acceleration increased with increasing system compliance.

Year	Entry
1971	Ommaya AK, Hirsch AE. Tolerances for cerebral concussion from head impact and whiplash in primates. J Biomech. 1971;4(1):13-21.
2005	Viano DC, Casson IR, Pellman EJ, Bir CA, Zhang L, Sherman DC, Boitano MA. Concussion in professional football: comparison with boxing head impacts: part 10. Neurosurgery. December 2005;57(6):1154-1172.
1974	Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness: correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain. December 1974;97(4):633-654.
2005	Viano DC, Pellman EJ. Concussion in professional football: biomechanics of the striking player: part 8. Neurosurgery. February 2005;56(2):266-278.
1943	Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.
1944	Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR. Mechanism of head injury as studied by the cathode ray oscilloscope: preliminary report. J Neurosurg. November 1944;1(6):393-399.
1975	Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.
1945	Holbourn AHS. The mechanics of brain injuries. Br Med Bull. January 1945;3(6):147-149.
2005	Flik K, Lyman S, Marx RG. American collegiate men’s ice hockey: an analysis of injuries. Am J Sports Med. February 2005;33(2):183-187.
1966	Gurdjian ES, Roberts VL, Thomas LM. Tolerance curves of acceleration and intracrantal pressure and protective index in experimental head injury. J Trauma. September 1966;6(5):600-604.
1968	Gurdjian ES, Hodgson VR, Thomas LM, Patrick LM. Significance of relative movements of scalp, skull, and intracranial contents during impact injury of the head. J Neurosurg. July 1968;29(1):70-72.
1946	Pudenz RH, Shelden CH. The lucite calvarium: a method for direct observation of the brain, II: cranial trauma and brain movement. J Neurosurg. 1946;3(6):487-505.
1999	Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA. September 8, 1999;282(10):958-963.
2004	Hoshizaki TB, Brien SE. The science and design of head protection in sport. Neurosurgery. October 2004;55(4):956-967.
1980	Ono K, Kikuchi A, Nakamura M, Kobayashi H, Nakamura N. Human head tolerance to sagittal impact reliable estimation deduced from experimental head injury using subhuman primates and human cadaver skulls. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:103-160. SAE 801303.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
2005	Bayly PV, Cohen TS, Leister EP, Ajo D, Leuthardt EC, Genin GM. Deformation of the human brain induced by mild acceleration. J Neurotrauma. August 2005;22(8):845-856.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.
1944	Walker AE, Kollros JJ, Case TJ. The physiological basis of concussion. J Neurosurg. March 1944;1(2):103-116.
1975	Hodgson VR. National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment football helmet certification program. Med Sci Sports. F, 1975;7(2):225-232.
1999	Thurman DJ, Alverson C, Dunn KA, Guerrero J, Sniezek JE. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: a public health perspective. J Head Trauma Rehabil. December 1999;14(6):602-615.
1964	Ommaya AK, Rockoff SD, Baldwin M, Friau WS. Experimental concussion: a first report. J Neurosurg. April 1964;21:249-265.
1953	Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Latimer FR, Haddad BF, Webster JE. Quantitative determination of acceleration and intracranial pressure in experimental head injury: preliminary report. Neurology. 1953;3(6):417-423.
1971	Ommaya AK, Grubb RL Jr, Naumann RA. Coup and contre-coup injury: observations on the mechanics of visible brain injuries in the rhesus monkey. J Neurosurg. November 1971;35(5):503-516.
1955	Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Observations on the mechanism of brain concussion, contusion, and laceration. Surg Gynecol Obstet. December 1955;101(6):680-690.
2004	Goldsmith W, Plunket J. A biomechanical analysis of the causes of traumatic brain injury in infants and children. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. June 2004;25(2):89-100.
1998	Thom DR, Hurt HH Jr, Smith TA. Motorcycle helmet test headform and test apparatus comparison. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.2310-2322.
2004	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.
2000	Guskiewicz KM, Weaver NL, Padua DA, Garrett WE Jr. Epidemiology of concussion in collegiate and high school football players. Am J Sports Med. September 2000;28(5):643-650.
2002	Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.
2005	Newman JA, Beusenberg MC, Shewchenko N, Withnall C, Fournier E. Verification of biomechanical methods employed in a comprehensive study of mild traumatic brain injury and the effectiveness of American football helmets. J Biomech. July 2005;38(7):1469-1481.
2005	Walilko TJ, Viano DC, Bir CA. Biomechanics of the head for Olympic boxer punches to the face. Br J Sports Med. October 2005;39(10):710-719.
2001	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanics of neurotrauma. Neurol Res. March–April 2001;23(2-3):144-156.
2006	Langlois JA, Rutland-Brown W, Wald MM. The epidemiology and impact of traumatic brain injury: a brief overview. J Head Trauma Rehabil. September–October 2006;21(5):375-378.
1966	Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.
2003	Kleiven S. Influence of impact direction on the human head in prediction of subdural hematoma. J Neurotrauma. April 2003;20(4):365-379.
2005	Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Zhang J, Gennarelli TA, Beuse N. Biomechanical aspects of blunt and penentrating head injuries. In: Gilchrist MD, ed. IUTAM Symposium on Impact Biomechanics: From Fundamental Insights to Applications. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2005:173-184. Solid Mechanics and Its Applications; vol 124.
2003	Cantu RC, Mueller FO. Brain injury-related fatalities in American football, 1945–1999. Neurosurgery. April 2003;52(4):846-853.
2009	Rousseau P, Hoshizaki TB. The influence of deflection and neck compliance on the impact dynamics of a Hybrid III headform. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P-J Sports Eng Tech. 2009;223(1):89-97.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.
2006	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.

Year

Entry

1971

Ommaya AK, Hirsch AE. Tolerances for cerebral concussion from head impact and whiplash in primates. J Biomech. 1971;4(1):13-21.

2005

Viano DC, Casson IR, Pellman EJ, Bir CA, Zhang L, Sherman DC, Boitano MA. Concussion in professional football: comparison with boxing head impacts: part 10. Neurosurgery. December 2005;57(6):1154-1172.

1974

Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness: correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain. December 1974;97(4):633-654.

2005

Viano DC, Pellman EJ. Concussion in professional football: biomechanics of the striking player: part 8. Neurosurgery. February 2005;56(2):266-278.

1943

Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.

1944

Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR. Mechanism of head injury as studied by the cathode ray oscilloscope: preliminary report. J Neurosurg. November 1944;1(6):393-399.

1975

Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.

1945

Holbourn AHS. The mechanics of brain injuries. Br Med Bull. January 1945;3(6):147-149.

2005

Flik K, Lyman S, Marx RG. American collegiate men’s ice hockey: an analysis of injuries. Am J Sports Med. February 2005;33(2):183-187.

1966

Gurdjian ES, Roberts VL, Thomas LM. Tolerance curves of acceleration and intracrantal pressure and protective index in experimental head injury. J Trauma. September 1966;6(5):600-604.

1968

Gurdjian ES, Hodgson VR, Thomas LM, Patrick LM. Significance of relative movements of scalp, skull, and intracranial contents during impact injury of the head. J Neurosurg. July 1968;29(1):70-72.

1946

Pudenz RH, Shelden CH. The lucite calvarium: a method for direct observation of the brain, II: cranial trauma and brain movement. J Neurosurg. 1946;3(6):487-505.

1999

Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA. September 8, 1999;282(10):958-963.

2004

Hoshizaki TB, Brien SE. The science and design of head protection in sport. Neurosurgery. October 2004;55(4):956-967.

1980

Ono K, Kikuchi A, Nakamura M, Kobayashi H, Nakamura N. Human head tolerance to sagittal impact reliable estimation deduced from experimental head injury using subhuman primates and human cadaver skulls. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:103-160. SAE 801303.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

2005

Bayly PV, Cohen TS, Leister EP, Ajo D, Leuthardt EC, Genin GM. Deformation of the human brain induced by mild acceleration. J Neurotrauma. August 2005;22(8):845-856.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.

1944

Walker AE, Kollros JJ, Case TJ. The physiological basis of concussion. J Neurosurg. March 1944;1(2):103-116.

1975

Hodgson VR. National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment football helmet certification program. Med Sci Sports. F, 1975;7(2):225-232.

1999

Thurman DJ, Alverson C, Dunn KA, Guerrero J, Sniezek JE. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: a public health perspective. J Head Trauma Rehabil. December 1999;14(6):602-615.

1964

Ommaya AK, Rockoff SD, Baldwin M, Friau WS. Experimental concussion: a first report. J Neurosurg. April 1964;21:249-265.

1953

Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Latimer FR, Haddad BF, Webster JE. Quantitative determination of acceleration and intracranial pressure in experimental head injury: preliminary report. Neurology. 1953;3(6):417-423.

1971

Ommaya AK, Grubb RL Jr, Naumann RA. Coup and contre-coup injury: observations on the mechanics of visible brain injuries in the rhesus monkey. J Neurosurg. November 1971;35(5):503-516.

1955

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Observations on the mechanism of brain concussion, contusion, and laceration. Surg Gynecol Obstet. December 1955;101(6):680-690.

2004

Goldsmith W, Plunket J. A biomechanical analysis of the causes of traumatic brain injury in infants and children. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. June 2004;25(2):89-100.

1998

Thom DR, Hurt HH Jr, Smith TA. Motorcycle helmet test headform and test apparatus comparison. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.2310-2322.

2004

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.

2000

Guskiewicz KM, Weaver NL, Padua DA, Garrett WE Jr. Epidemiology of concussion in collegiate and high school football players. Am J Sports Med. September 2000;28(5):643-650.

2002

Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.

2005

Newman JA, Beusenberg MC, Shewchenko N, Withnall C, Fournier E. Verification of biomechanical methods employed in a comprehensive study of mild traumatic brain injury and the effectiveness of American football helmets. J Biomech. July 2005;38(7):1469-1481.

2005

Walilko TJ, Viano DC, Bir CA. Biomechanics of the head for Olympic boxer punches to the face. Br J Sports Med. October 2005;39(10):710-719.

2001

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanics of neurotrauma. Neurol Res. March–April 2001;23(2-3):144-156.

2006

Langlois JA, Rutland-Brown W, Wald MM. The epidemiology and impact of traumatic brain injury: a brief overview. J Head Trauma Rehabil. September–October 2006;21(5):375-378.

1966

Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.

2003

Kleiven S. Influence of impact direction on the human head in prediction of subdural hematoma. J Neurotrauma. April 2003;20(4):365-379.

2005

Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Zhang J, Gennarelli TA, Beuse N. Biomechanical aspects of blunt and penentrating head injuries. In: Gilchrist MD, ed. IUTAM Symposium on Impact Biomechanics: From Fundamental Insights to Applications. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2005:173-184. Solid Mechanics and Its Applications; vol 124.

2003

Cantu RC, Mueller FO. Brain injury-related fatalities in American football, 1945–1999. Neurosurgery. April 2003;52(4):846-853.

2009

Rousseau P, Hoshizaki TB. The influence of deflection and neck compliance on the impact dynamics of a Hybrid III headform. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P-J Sports Eng Tech. 2009;223(1):89-97.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.

2006

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.

Year	Entry
2022	Renyard N. Evaluating the Combined Effect of Thermoplastic Polyurethane Material in Ice Hockey Goaltender Helmets and Cervical Muscle Strength in Mitigating Concussion Risk During Simulated Horizontal Head Collisions [Master's thesis]. Thunder Bay, ON: Lakehead University; 2022.

Year

Entry

2022

Renyard N. Evaluating the Combined Effect of Thermoplastic Polyurethane Material in Ice Hockey Goaltender Helmets and Cervical Muscle Strength in Mitigating Concussion Risk During Simulated Horizontal Head Collisions [Master's thesis]. Thunder Bay, ON: Lakehead University; 2022.