Validation of Subject Specific Computed Tomography-Based Finite Element Models of the Human Proximal Tibia Using Full-Field Experimental Displacement Measurements from Digital Volume Correlation

Quantitative computed tomography-based finite element (QCT-FE) modeling is a computational tool for predicting bone’s response to applied load, and is used by musculoskeletal researchers to better understand bone mechanics and their role in joint health. Decisions made at the modeling stage, such as the method for assigning material properties, can dictate model accuracy. Predictions of surface strains/stiffness from QCT-FE models of the proximal tibia have been validated against experiment, yet it is unclear whether these models accurately predict internal bone mechanics (displacement). Digital volume correlation (DVC) can measure internal bone displacements and has been used to validate FE models of bone; though, its use has been limited to small specimens.

The objectives of this study were to 1) establish a methodology for high-resolution peripheral QCT (HR-pQCT) scan acquisition and image processing resulting in low DVC displacement measurement error in long human bones, and 2) apply different density-modulus relationships and material models from the literature to QCT-FE models of the proximal tibia and identify those approaches which best predicted experimentally measured internal bone displacements and related external reaction forces, with highest explained variance and least error.

Using a modified protocol for HR-pQCT, DVC displacement errors for large scan volumes were less than 19µm (0.5 voxels). Specific trabecular and cortical models from the literature were identified which resulted in the most accurate QCT-FE predictions of internal displacements (RMSE%=3.9%, R²>0.98) and reaction forces (RMSE%=12.2%, R²=0.78). This study is the first study to quantify experimental displacements inside a long human bone using DVC. It is also the first study to assess the accuracy of QCT-FE predicted internal displacements in the tibia. Our results indicate that QCT-FE models of the tibia offer reasonably accurate predictions of internal bone displacements and reaction forces for use in studying bone mechanics and joint health.

Year	Entry
1992	Anderson MJ, Keyak JH, Skinner HB. Compressive mechanical properties of human cancellous bone after gamma irradiation. J Bone Joint Surg. June 1992;74A(5):747-752.
1965	Nelder JA, Mead R. A simplex method for function minimization. Comput J. April 1965;8(1):308-313.
2019	Comini F, Palanca M, Cristofolini L, Dall’Ara E. Uncertainties of synchrotron microCT-based digital volume correlation bone strain measurements under simulated deformation. J Biomech. March 27, 2019;86:232-237.
2005	Nagaraja S, Couse TL, Guldberg RE. Trabecular bone microdamage and microstructural stresses under uniaxial compression. J Biomech. 2005;38(4):707-716.
2017	Tozzi G, Dall’Ara E, Palanca M, Curto M, Innocente F, Cristofolini L. Strain uncertainties from two digital volume correlation approaches in prophylactically augmented vertebrae: local analysis on bone and cement-bone microstructures. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. March 2017;67:117-126.
2007	Taddei F, Schileo E, Helgason B, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M. The material mapping strategy influences the accuracy of ct-based finite element models of bones: an evaluation against experimental measurements. Med Eng Phys. 2007;29(9):973-979.
1997	Li B, Aspden RM. Composition and mechanical properties of cancellous bone from the femoral head of patients with osteoporosis or osteoarthritis. J Bone Miner Res. 1997;12(4):641-651.
2004	Taddei F, Pancanti A, Viceconti M. An improved method for the automatic mapping of computed tomography numbers onto finite element models. Med Eng Phys. 2004;26(1):61-69.
2001	Day JS, Ding M, van der Linden JC, Hvid I, Sumner DR, Weinans H. A decreased subchondral trabecular bone tissue elastic modulus is associated with pre‐arthritic cartilage damage. J Orthop Res. September 2001;19(5):914-918.
2019	Kusins J, Knowles N, Ryan M, Dall’Ara E, Ferreira L. Performance of QCT-derived scapula finite element models in predicting local displacements using digital volume correlation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. September 2019;97:339-345.
1978	Hayes WC, Swenson LW Jr, Schurman DJ. Axisymmetric finite element analysis of the lateral tibial plateau. J Biomech. 1978;11(1-2):21-33.
1994	Keyak JH, Lee IY, Skinner HB. Correlations between orthogonal mechanical properties and density of trabecular bone: use of different densitometric measures. J Biomed Mater Res. November 1994;A28(11):1329-1336.
1991	Snyder SM, Schneider E. Estimation of mechanical properties of cortical bone by computed tomography. J Orthop Res. May 1991;9(3):422-431.
1998	Laib A, Häuselmann HJ, Rüegsegger P. In vivo high resolution 3D-QCT of the human forearm. Technol Health Care. 1998;6(5-6):329-337.
1992	Keyak JH, Skinner HB. Three-dimensional finite element modelling of bone: effects of element size. J Biomed Eng. 1992;14(6):483-489.
1977	Carter DR, Hayes WC. The compressive behavior of bone as a two-phase porous structure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1977;59A(7):954-962.
1994	Goulet RW, Goldstein SA, Ciarelli MJ, Kuhn JL, Brown MB, Feldkamp LA. The relationship between the structural and orthogonal compressive properties of trabecular bone. J Biomech. April 1994;27(4):375-389.
2016	Jackman TM, DelMonaco AM, Morgan EF. Accuracy of finite element analyses of CT scans in predictions of vertebral failure patterns under axial compression and anterior flexion. J Biomech. January 25, 2016;49(2):267-275.
2017	Chen Y, Dall’Ara E, Sales E, Manda K, Wallace R, Pankaj P, Viceconti M. Micro-CT based finite element models of cancellous bone predict accurately displacement once the boundary condition is well replicated: a validation study. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. January 2017;65:644-651.
2001	Keaveny TM, Morgan EF, Niebur GL, Yeh OC. Biomechanics of trabecular bone. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2001;3:307-333.
1999	Bay BK, Smith TS, Fyhrie DP, Saad M. Digital volume correlation: three-dimensional strain mapping using X-ray tomography. Exp Mech. September 1999;39(3):217-226.
1985	Gibson LJ. The mechanical behaviour of cancellous bone. J Biomech. 1985;18(5):317-328.
1996	Rho J-Y. An ultrasonic method for measuring the elastic properties of human tibial cortical and cancellous bone. Ultrasonics. December 1996;34(8):777-783.
1992	Huiskes R, Weinans H, Van Rietbergen B. The relationship between stress shielding and bone resorption around total hip stems and the effects of flexible materials. Clin Orthop Relat Res. January 1992;274:124-134.
2004	Nazarian A, Müller R. Time-lapsed microstructural imaging of bone failure behavior. J Biomech. 2004;37(1):55-65.
2018	Burnett WD. Relationships Between Image-Based and Mechanical Bone Properties With Pain in Knee Osteoarthritis [PhD thesis]. University of Saskatchewan; July 2018.
2017	Kroker A, Zhu Y, Manske SL, Barber R, Mohtadi N, Boyd SK. Quantitative in vivo assessment of bone microarchitecture in the human knee using HR-pQCT. Bone. April 2017;97:43-48.
1985	Cowin SC. The relationship between the elasticity tensor and the fabric tensor. Mech Mater. 1985;4(2):137-147.
1998	Keyak JH, Rossi SA, Jones KA, Skinner HB. Prediction of femoral fracture load using automated finite element modeling. J Biomech. February 1998;31(2):125-133.
2008	Austman RL, Milner JS, Holdsworth DW, Dunning CE. The effect of the density–modulus relationship selected to apply material properties in a finite element model of long bone. J Biomech. November 14, 2008;41(15):3171-3176.
1994	Keller TS. Predicting the compressive mechanical behavior of bone. J Biomech. September 1994;27(9):1159-1168.
2014	Dall’Ara E, Barber D, Viceconti M. About the inevitable compromise between spatial resolution and accuracy of strain measurement for bone tissue: a 3D zero-strain study. J Biomech. September 22, 2014;47(12):2956-2963.
2012	Hussein AI, Barbone PE, Morgan EF. Digital volume correlation for study of the mechanics of whole bones. Procedia Eng. 2012;4:116-125.
2007	Liu L, Morgan EF. Accuracy and precision of digital volume correlation in quantifying displacements and strains in trabecular bone. J Biomech. 2007;40(15):3516-3520.
2008	Gray HA, Taddei F, Zavatsky AB, Cristofolini L, Gill HS. Experimental validation of a finite element model of a human cadaveric tibia. J Biomech Eng. June 2008;130(3):031016.
1998	Viceconti M, Bellingeri L, Cristofolini L, Toni A. A comparative study on different methods of automatic mesh generation of human femurs. Med Eng Phys. January 1998;20(1):1-10.
2014	Gilchrist SM. Comparison of Proximal Femur Deformations, Failures and Fractures in Quasi-Static and Inertially-Driven Simulations of a Sideways Fall from Standing: An Experimental Study Utilizing Novel Fall Simulation, Digital Image Correlation, and Development of Digital Volume Correlation Techniques [PhD thesis]. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia; January 2014.
1992	Linde F, Hvid I, Madsen F. The effect of specimen geometry on the mechanical behaviour of trabecular bone specimens. J Biomech. 1992;25(4):359-368.
2018	Oliviero S, Giorgi M, Dall'Ara E. Validation of finite element models of the mouse tibia using digital volume correlation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. October 2018;86:172-184.
2000	Niebur GL, Feldstein MJ, Yuen JC, Chen TJ, Keaveny TM. High-resolution finite element models with tissue strength asymmetry accurately predict failure of trabecular bone. J Biomech. December 2000;33(12):1575-1583.
1987	Engh CA, Bobyn JD, Glassman AH. Porous-coated hip replacement: the factors governing bone ingrowth, stress shielding, and clinical results. J Bone Joint Surg. January 1987;69B(1):45-55.
1990	Turner CH, Cowin SC, Rho JY, Ashman RB, Rice JC. The fabric dependence of the orthotropic elastic constants of cancellous bone. J Biomech. 1990;23(6):549-561.
2013	Burkhart TA, Andrews DM, Dunning CE. Finite element modeling mesh quality, energy balance and validation methods: a review with recommendations associated with the modeling of bone tissue. J Biomech. May 31, 2013;46(9):1477-1488.
1996	van Rietbergen B, Odgaard A, Kabel J, Huiskes R. Direct mechanics assessment of elastic symmetries and properties of trabecular bone architecture. J Biomech. December 1996;29(12):1653-1657.
1986	Wolff J. The Law of Bone Remodelling. Maquet P, Furlong R, trans. New York, NY: Springer; 1986.
1992	Hodgskinson R, Currey JD. Young's modulus, density and material properties in cancellous bone over a large density range. J Mater Sci Mater Med. September 1992;3(5):377-381.
2010	Chen G, Schmutz B, Epari D, Rathnayaka K, Ibrahim S, Schuetz MA, Pearcy MJ. A new approach for assigning bone material properties from CT images into finite element models. J Biomech. 2010;43(5):1011-1015.
2006	Zauel R, Yeni YN, Bay BK, Dong XN, Fyhrie DP. Comparison of the linear finite element prediction of deformation and strain of human cancellous bone to 3D digital volume correlation measurements. J Biomech Eng. February 2006;128(1):1-6.
2005	Keyak JH, Kaneko TS, Tehranzadeh J, Skinner HB. Predicting proximal femoral strength using structural engineering models. Clin Orthop Relat Res. August 2005;437:219-228.
2008	Helgason B, Taddei F, Pálsson H, Schileo E, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M, Brynjolfsson S. A modified method for assigning material properties to FE models of bones. Med Eng Phys. May 2008;30(4):444-453.
2008	Helgason B, Perilli E, Schileo E, Taddei F, Brynjólfsson S, Viceconti M. Mathematical relationships between bone density and mechanical properties: a literature review. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2008;23(2):135-146.
2010	Sztefek P, Vanleene M, Olsson R, Collinson R, Pitsillides AA, Shefelbine S. Using digital image correlation to determine bone surface strains during loading and after adaptation of the mouse tibia. J Biomech. March 3, 2010;43(4):599-605.
1996	Van Rietbergen B, Weinans H, Huiskes R, Polman BJW. Computational strategies for iterative solutions of large FEM applications employing voxel data. Int J Num Meth Eng. August 30, 1996;39(16):2743-2767.
2002	Smith TS, Bay BK, Rashid MM. Digital volume correlation including rotational degrees of freedom during minimization. Exp Mech. September 2002;42(3):272-278.
1999	Ulrich D, van Rietbergen B, Laib A, Rüegsegger P. The ability of three-dimensional structural indices to reflect mechanical aspects of trabecular bone. Bone. 1999;25(1):55-60.
2012	Edwards WB, Troy KL. Finite element prediction of surface strain and fracture strength at the distal radius. Med Eng Phys. April 2012;34(3):290-298.
1984	Brown TD, Radin EL, Martin RB, Burr DB. Finite element studies of some juxtarticular stress changes due to localized subchondral stiffening. J Biomech. 1984;17(1):11-24.
2003	Morgan EF, Bayraktar HH, Keaveny TM. Trabecular bone modulus–density relationships depend on anatomic site. J Biomech. July 2003;36(7):897-904.
2013	Dall'Ara E, Luisier B, Schmidt R, Kainberger F, Zysset P, Pahr D. A nonlinear QCT-based finite element model validation study for the human femur tested in two configurations in vitro. Bone. January 2013;52(1):27-38.
2019	Knowles NK, Kusins J, Faieghi M, Ryan M, Dall’Ara E, Ferreira LM. Material mapping of QCT-derived scapular models: a comparison with micro-CT loaded specimens using digital volume correlation. Ann Biomed Eng. November 2019;47(11):2188-2198.
1995	Rho JY, Hobatho MC, Ashman RB. Relations of mechanical properties to density and CT numbers in human bone. Med Eng Phys. July 1995;17(5):347-355.
2017	Costa MC, Tozzi G, Cristofolini L, Danesi V, Viceconti M, Dall’Ara E. Micro finite element models of the vertebral body: validation of local displacement predictions. PLoS One. July 11, 2017;12(7):e0180151.
1993	Rho JY, Ashman RB, Turner CH. Young's modulus of trabecular and cortical bone material: ultrasonic and microtensile measurements. J Biomech. February 1993;26(2):111-119.
1991	Linde F, Nørgaard P, Hvid I, Odgaard A, Søballe K. Mechanical properties of trabecular bone: dependency on strain rate. J Biomech. 1991;24(9):803-809.
2014	Gillard F, Boardman R, Mavrogordato M, Hollis D, Sinclair I, Pierron F, Browne M. The application of digital volume correlation (DVC) to study the microstructural behaviour of trabecular bone during compression. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. January 2014;29:480-499.
2012	Christen D, Levchuk A, Schori S, Schneider P, Boyd SK, Müller R. Deformable image registration and 3D strain mapping for the quantitative assessment of cortical bone microdamage. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. April 2012;8:184-193.
2007	Schileo E, Taddei F, Malandrino A, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M. Subject-specific finite element models can accurately predict strain levels in long bones. J Biomech. 2007;40(13):2982-2989.
2013	Kersh ME, Zysset PK, Pahr DH, Wolfram U, Larsson D, Pandy MG. Measurement of structural anisotropy in femoral trabecular bone using clinical-resolution CT images. J Biomech. October 18, 2013;46(15):2659-2666.
2015	Palanca M, Tozzi G, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M, Dall'Ara E. Three-dimensional local measurements of bone strain and displacement: comparison of three digital volume correlation approaches. J Biomech Eng. July 2015;137(7):071006.
2017	Palanca M, Bodey AJ, Giorgi M, Viceconti M, Lacroix D, Cristofolini L, Dall'Ara E. Local displacement and strain uncertainties in different bone types by digital volume correlation of synchrotron microtomograms. J Biomech. June 14, 2017;58:27-36.

Year

Entry

1992

Anderson MJ, Keyak JH, Skinner HB. Compressive mechanical properties of human cancellous bone after gamma irradiation. J Bone Joint Surg. June 1992;74A(5):747-752.

1965

Nelder JA, Mead R. A simplex method for function minimization. Comput J. April 1965;8(1):308-313.

2019

Comini F, Palanca M, Cristofolini L, Dall’Ara E. Uncertainties of synchrotron microCT-based digital volume correlation bone strain measurements under simulated deformation. J Biomech. March 27, 2019;86:232-237.

2005

Nagaraja S, Couse TL, Guldberg RE. Trabecular bone microdamage and microstructural stresses under uniaxial compression. J Biomech. 2005;38(4):707-716.

2017

Tozzi G, Dall’Ara E, Palanca M, Curto M, Innocente F, Cristofolini L. Strain uncertainties from two digital volume correlation approaches in prophylactically augmented vertebrae: local analysis on bone and cement-bone microstructures. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. March 2017;67:117-126.

2007

Taddei F, Schileo E, Helgason B, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M. The material mapping strategy influences the accuracy of ct-based finite element models of bones: an evaluation against experimental measurements. Med Eng Phys. 2007;29(9):973-979.

1997

Li B, Aspden RM. Composition and mechanical properties of cancellous bone from the femoral head of patients with osteoporosis or osteoarthritis. J Bone Miner Res. 1997;12(4):641-651.

2004

Taddei F, Pancanti A, Viceconti M. An improved method for the automatic mapping of computed tomography numbers onto finite element models. Med Eng Phys. 2004;26(1):61-69.

2001

Day JS, Ding M, van der Linden JC, Hvid I, Sumner DR, Weinans H. A decreased subchondral trabecular bone tissue elastic modulus is associated with pre‐arthritic cartilage damage. J Orthop Res. September 2001;19(5):914-918.

2019

Kusins J, Knowles N, Ryan M, Dall’Ara E, Ferreira L. Performance of QCT-derived scapula finite element models in predicting local displacements using digital volume correlation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. September 2019;97:339-345.

1978

Hayes WC, Swenson LW Jr, Schurman DJ. Axisymmetric finite element analysis of the lateral tibial plateau. J Biomech. 1978;11(1-2):21-33.

1994

Keyak JH, Lee IY, Skinner HB. Correlations between orthogonal mechanical properties and density of trabecular bone: use of different densitometric measures. J Biomed Mater Res. November 1994;A28(11):1329-1336.

1991

Snyder SM, Schneider E. Estimation of mechanical properties of cortical bone by computed tomography. J Orthop Res. May 1991;9(3):422-431.

1998

Laib A, Häuselmann HJ, Rüegsegger P. In vivo high resolution 3D-QCT of the human forearm. Technol Health Care. 1998;6(5-6):329-337.

1992

Keyak JH, Skinner HB. Three-dimensional finite element modelling of bone: effects of element size. J Biomed Eng. 1992;14(6):483-489.

1977

Carter DR, Hayes WC. The compressive behavior of bone as a two-phase porous structure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1977;59A(7):954-962.

1994

Goulet RW, Goldstein SA, Ciarelli MJ, Kuhn JL, Brown MB, Feldkamp LA. The relationship between the structural and orthogonal compressive properties of trabecular bone. J Biomech. April 1994;27(4):375-389.

2016

Jackman TM, DelMonaco AM, Morgan EF. Accuracy of finite element analyses of CT scans in predictions of vertebral failure patterns under axial compression and anterior flexion. J Biomech. January 25, 2016;49(2):267-275.

2017

Chen Y, Dall’Ara E, Sales E, Manda K, Wallace R, Pankaj P, Viceconti M. Micro-CT based finite element models of cancellous bone predict accurately displacement once the boundary condition is well replicated: a validation study. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. January 2017;65:644-651.

2001

Keaveny TM, Morgan EF, Niebur GL, Yeh OC. Biomechanics of trabecular bone. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2001;3:307-333.

1999

Bay BK, Smith TS, Fyhrie DP, Saad M. Digital volume correlation: three-dimensional strain mapping using X-ray tomography. Exp Mech. September 1999;39(3):217-226.

1985

Gibson LJ. The mechanical behaviour of cancellous bone. J Biomech. 1985;18(5):317-328.

1996

Rho J-Y. An ultrasonic method for measuring the elastic properties of human tibial cortical and cancellous bone. Ultrasonics. December 1996;34(8):777-783.

1992

Huiskes R, Weinans H, Van Rietbergen B. The relationship between stress shielding and bone resorption around total hip stems and the effects of flexible materials. Clin Orthop Relat Res. January 1992;274:124-134.

2004

Nazarian A, Müller R. Time-lapsed microstructural imaging of bone failure behavior. J Biomech. 2004;37(1):55-65.

2018

Burnett WD. Relationships Between Image-Based and Mechanical Bone Properties With Pain in Knee Osteoarthritis [PhD thesis]. University of Saskatchewan; July 2018.

2017

Kroker A, Zhu Y, Manske SL, Barber R, Mohtadi N, Boyd SK. Quantitative in vivo assessment of bone microarchitecture in the human knee using HR-pQCT. Bone. April 2017;97:43-48.

1985

Cowin SC. The relationship between the elasticity tensor and the fabric tensor. Mech Mater. 1985;4(2):137-147.

1998

Keyak JH, Rossi SA, Jones KA, Skinner HB. Prediction of femoral fracture load using automated finite element modeling. J Biomech. February 1998;31(2):125-133.

2008

Austman RL, Milner JS, Holdsworth DW, Dunning CE. The effect of the density–modulus relationship selected to apply material properties in a finite element model of long bone. J Biomech. November 14, 2008;41(15):3171-3176.

1994

Keller TS. Predicting the compressive mechanical behavior of bone. J Biomech. September 1994;27(9):1159-1168.

2014

Dall’Ara E, Barber D, Viceconti M. About the inevitable compromise between spatial resolution and accuracy of strain measurement for bone tissue: a 3D zero-strain study. J Biomech. September 22, 2014;47(12):2956-2963.

2012

Hussein AI, Barbone PE, Morgan EF. Digital volume correlation for study of the mechanics of whole bones. Procedia Eng. 2012;4:116-125.

2007

Liu L, Morgan EF. Accuracy and precision of digital volume correlation in quantifying displacements and strains in trabecular bone. J Biomech. 2007;40(15):3516-3520.

2008

Gray HA, Taddei F, Zavatsky AB, Cristofolini L, Gill HS. Experimental validation of a finite element model of a human cadaveric tibia. J Biomech Eng. June 2008;130(3):031016.

1998

Viceconti M, Bellingeri L, Cristofolini L, Toni A. A comparative study on different methods of automatic mesh generation of human femurs. Med Eng Phys. January 1998;20(1):1-10.

2014

Gilchrist SM. Comparison of Proximal Femur Deformations, Failures and Fractures in Quasi-Static and Inertially-Driven Simulations of a Sideways Fall from Standing: An Experimental Study Utilizing Novel Fall Simulation, Digital Image Correlation, and Development of Digital Volume Correlation Techniques [PhD thesis]. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia; January 2014.

1992

Linde F, Hvid I, Madsen F. The effect of specimen geometry on the mechanical behaviour of trabecular bone specimens. J Biomech. 1992;25(4):359-368.

2018

Oliviero S, Giorgi M, Dall'Ara E. Validation of finite element models of the mouse tibia using digital volume correlation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. October 2018;86:172-184.

2000

Niebur GL, Feldstein MJ, Yuen JC, Chen TJ, Keaveny TM. High-resolution finite element models with tissue strength asymmetry accurately predict failure of trabecular bone. J Biomech. December 2000;33(12):1575-1583.

1987

Engh CA, Bobyn JD, Glassman AH. Porous-coated hip replacement: the factors governing bone ingrowth, stress shielding, and clinical results. J Bone Joint Surg. January 1987;69B(1):45-55.

1990

Turner CH, Cowin SC, Rho JY, Ashman RB, Rice JC. The fabric dependence of the orthotropic elastic constants of cancellous bone. J Biomech. 1990;23(6):549-561.

2013

Burkhart TA, Andrews DM, Dunning CE. Finite element modeling mesh quality, energy balance and validation methods: a review with recommendations associated with the modeling of bone tissue. J Biomech. May 31, 2013;46(9):1477-1488.

1996

van Rietbergen B, Odgaard A, Kabel J, Huiskes R. Direct mechanics assessment of elastic symmetries and properties of trabecular bone architecture. J Biomech. December 1996;29(12):1653-1657.

1986

Wolff J. The Law of Bone Remodelling. Maquet P, Furlong R, trans. New York, NY: Springer; 1986.

1992

Hodgskinson R, Currey JD. Young's modulus, density and material properties in cancellous bone over a large density range. J Mater Sci Mater Med. September 1992;3(5):377-381.

2010

Chen G, Schmutz B, Epari D, Rathnayaka K, Ibrahim S, Schuetz MA, Pearcy MJ. A new approach for assigning bone material properties from CT images into finite element models. J Biomech. 2010;43(5):1011-1015.

2006

Zauel R, Yeni YN, Bay BK, Dong XN, Fyhrie DP. Comparison of the linear finite element prediction of deformation and strain of human cancellous bone to 3D digital volume correlation measurements. J Biomech Eng. February 2006;128(1):1-6.

2005

Keyak JH, Kaneko TS, Tehranzadeh J, Skinner HB. Predicting proximal femoral strength using structural engineering models. Clin Orthop Relat Res. August 2005;437:219-228.

2008

Helgason B, Taddei F, Pálsson H, Schileo E, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M, Brynjolfsson S. A modified method for assigning material properties to FE models of bones. Med Eng Phys. May 2008;30(4):444-453.

2008

Helgason B, Perilli E, Schileo E, Taddei F, Brynjólfsson S, Viceconti M. Mathematical relationships between bone density and mechanical properties: a literature review. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2008;23(2):135-146.

2010

Sztefek P, Vanleene M, Olsson R, Collinson R, Pitsillides AA, Shefelbine S. Using digital image correlation to determine bone surface strains during loading and after adaptation of the mouse tibia. J Biomech. March 3, 2010;43(4):599-605.

1996

Van Rietbergen B, Weinans H, Huiskes R, Polman BJW. Computational strategies for iterative solutions of large FEM applications employing voxel data. Int J Num Meth Eng. August 30, 1996;39(16):2743-2767.

2002

Smith TS, Bay BK, Rashid MM. Digital volume correlation including rotational degrees of freedom during minimization. Exp Mech. September 2002;42(3):272-278.

1999

Ulrich D, van Rietbergen B, Laib A, Rüegsegger P. The ability of three-dimensional structural indices to reflect mechanical aspects of trabecular bone. Bone. 1999;25(1):55-60.

2012

Edwards WB, Troy KL. Finite element prediction of surface strain and fracture strength at the distal radius. Med Eng Phys. April 2012;34(3):290-298.

1984

Brown TD, Radin EL, Martin RB, Burr DB. Finite element studies of some juxtarticular stress changes due to localized subchondral stiffening. J Biomech. 1984;17(1):11-24.

2003

Morgan EF, Bayraktar HH, Keaveny TM. Trabecular bone modulus–density relationships depend on anatomic site. J Biomech. July 2003;36(7):897-904.

2013

Dall'Ara E, Luisier B, Schmidt R, Kainberger F, Zysset P, Pahr D. A nonlinear QCT-based finite element model validation study for the human femur tested in two configurations in vitro. Bone. January 2013;52(1):27-38.

2019

Knowles NK, Kusins J, Faieghi M, Ryan M, Dall’Ara E, Ferreira LM. Material mapping of QCT-derived scapular models: a comparison with micro-CT loaded specimens using digital volume correlation. Ann Biomed Eng. November 2019;47(11):2188-2198.

1995

Rho JY, Hobatho MC, Ashman RB. Relations of mechanical properties to density and CT numbers in human bone. Med Eng Phys. July 1995;17(5):347-355.

2017

Costa MC, Tozzi G, Cristofolini L, Danesi V, Viceconti M, Dall’Ara E. Micro finite element models of the vertebral body: validation of local displacement predictions. PLoS One. July 11, 2017;12(7):e0180151.

1993

Rho JY, Ashman RB, Turner CH. Young's modulus of trabecular and cortical bone material: ultrasonic and microtensile measurements. J Biomech. February 1993;26(2):111-119.

1991

Linde F, Nørgaard P, Hvid I, Odgaard A, Søballe K. Mechanical properties of trabecular bone: dependency on strain rate. J Biomech. 1991;24(9):803-809.

2014

Gillard F, Boardman R, Mavrogordato M, Hollis D, Sinclair I, Pierron F, Browne M. The application of digital volume correlation (DVC) to study the microstructural behaviour of trabecular bone during compression. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. January 2014;29:480-499.

2012

Christen D, Levchuk A, Schori S, Schneider P, Boyd SK, Müller R. Deformable image registration and 3D strain mapping for the quantitative assessment of cortical bone microdamage. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. April 2012;8:184-193.

2007

Schileo E, Taddei F, Malandrino A, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M. Subject-specific finite element models can accurately predict strain levels in long bones. J Biomech. 2007;40(13):2982-2989.

2013

Kersh ME, Zysset PK, Pahr DH, Wolfram U, Larsson D, Pandy MG. Measurement of structural anisotropy in femoral trabecular bone using clinical-resolution CT images. J Biomech. October 18, 2013;46(15):2659-2666.

2015

Palanca M, Tozzi G, Cristofolini L, Viceconti M, Dall'Ara E. Three-dimensional local measurements of bone strain and displacement: comparison of three digital volume correlation approaches. J Biomech Eng. July 2015;137(7):071006.

2017

Palanca M, Bodey AJ, Giorgi M, Viceconti M, Lacroix D, Cristofolini L, Dall'Ara E. Local displacement and strain uncertainties in different bone types by digital volume correlation of synchrotron microtomograms. J Biomech. June 14, 2017;58:27-36.

Year	Entry
2021	Kusins J. A Multi-Level Mechanical Assessment of the Shoulder Coupled With Evaluation of Upper Extremity Predictive Finite Element Models [PhD thesis]. University of Western Ontario; 2021.

Year

Entry

2021

Kusins J. A Multi-Level Mechanical Assessment of the Shoulder Coupled With Evaluation of Upper Extremity Predictive Finite Element Models [PhD thesis]. University of Western Ontario; 2021.