Biomechanics of Occupant Loading by Pre-Crash Motorized Shoulder Belt Tensioning

Motorized shoulder belt tensioning is a new seatbelt technology that is likely to be incorporated into future vehicles. This technology tightens the shoulder belt in pre-crash situations to reduce automotive crash injuries. Low-level motorized shoulder belt tensioning (<290 N) is well tolerated by vehicle occupants, but optimum performance for a diverse occupant population (6-year-old through 95th percentile male) is unknown.

This research provides data and techniques to optimize motorized tensioning parameters for all occupants. A lack of volunteer data on the biomechanics of occupant pull-back by motorized shoulder belt tensioning and a lack of validated models motivated this research. In addition, the biofidelity of the Hybrid III crash test dummy for shoulder belt tensioning was unknown.

Experiments were conducted with three populations of adult volunteers (5th percentile female, 50th percentile male and 95th percentile male) and the Hybrid III crash test dummy family to measure torso kinematics and kinetics during shoulder belt tensioning.

The volunteer experiments showed that changes in spinal curvature were small and the centre of rotation was within 4.2 cm of the H-point during tensioning. The angular repositioning of the torso was: 54.3º in 0.78 s for the 5th percentile female, 57.6º in 0.95 s for the 50th percentile male and 42.2º in 0.92 s for the 95th percentile male. The peak shoulder belt forces were 82 N – 92 N.

The biofidelity of the Hybrid III dummy was poor for studying shoulder belt tensioning in a relaxed occupant. The rigid pelvis and lower torso assembly lacked the mobility observed in volunteers.

A two and three-dimensional model of shoulder belt tensioning was validated using the volunteer data. The three-dimensional model incorporated pre-impact braking and a DC motor-controller model for the seatbelt tensioner. Applying speed control to the motorized tensioner achieved the best retraction response for the 5th female, 50th male and 95th male populations during frontal braking. This control scheme shows promise as a single design specification for all occupants.

Year	Entry
1986	Backaitis SH, St-Laurent A. Chest deflection characteristics of volunteers and Hybrid III dummies. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:157-166. SAE 861884.
1998	Davidsson J, Deutscher C, Hell W, Linder A, Lövsund P, Svensson MY. Human volunteer kinematics in rear-end sled collisions. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.289-301.
1997	Ono K, Kaneoka K, Wittek A, Kajzer J. Cervical injury mechanism based on the analysis of human cervical vertebral motion and head-neck-torso kinematics during low speed rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-356. SAE 973340.
2001	Mertz HJ, Jarrett K, Moss S, Salloum M, Zhao Y. The Hybrid III 10-year-old dummy. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:319-328. SAE 2001-22-0014.
1979	Cheng R, Mital NK, Levine RS, King AI. Biodynamics of the living human spine during -gx impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1979; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:723-763. SAE 791027.
2002	Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.
2000	Watanabe Y, Ichikawa H, Kayama O, Ono K, Kaneoka K, Inami S. Influence of seat characteristics on occupant motion in low-speed rear impacts. Accid Anal Prev. March 2000;32(2):243-250.
2007	Good C, Viano D, McPhee J, Ronsky J. Modeling biomechanics of volunteers subject to loading by a motorized shoulder belt tensioner. In: Proceedings of the 2007 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 19-21, 2007; Maastricht, The Netherlands.381-384.
2001	Baumann K-H, Schöneburg R, Justen R. The vision of a comprehensive safety concept. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
1993	Söderkvist I, Wedin P-Å. Determining the movements of the skeleton using well-configured markers. J Biomech. December 1993;26(12):1473-1477.
1967	Bohlin NI. A statistical analysis of 28,000 accident cases with emphasis on occupant restraint value. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 10-11, 1967; Anaheim, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:455-478. SAE 670925.
1978	Mital NK, Cheng R, Levine RS, King AI. Dynamic characteristics of the human spine during -gx acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:141-165. SAE 780889.
1989	Mertz HJ, Irwin AL, Melvin JW, Stalnaker RL, Beebe MS. Size, weight and biomechanical impact response requirements for adult size small female and large male dummies. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 27–March 3, 1989; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 890756.
1984	Mertz HJ. A procedure for normalizing impact response data. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-8. SAE 840884.
1981	Patrick LM. Impact force-deflection the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:471-496. SAE 811014.
1975	Nyquist GW, Murton CJ. Static bending response of the human lower torso. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:513-541. SAE 751158.
1998	Zellmer H, Lührs S, Brüggemann K. Optimized restraint systems for rear seat passengers. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.316-326.
1980	McConville JT, Churchill TD, Kaleps I, Clauser CE, Cuzzi J. Anthropometric Relationships of Body and Body Segment Moments of Inertia. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory; December 1980. Report No. AFAMRL-TR-80-119.
1973	Lobdell TE, Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Hering WE, Nahum AM. Impact response of the human thorax. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:201-243.
1991	Evans L. Traffic Safety and the Driver. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1991.
1982	Mertz HJ, Driscoll GD, Lenox JB, Nyquist GW, Weber DA. Responses of animals exposed to deployment of various passenger inflatable restraint system concepts for a variety of collision severities and animal positions. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.352-368.
1986	Evans L. The effectiveness of safety belts in preventing fatalities. Accid Anal Prev. June 1986;18(3):229-241.
1993	Mertz HJ. Anthropomorphic test devices. In: Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1993:66-84.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
1984	Prasad P, Daniel RP. A biomechanical analysis of head, neck, and torso injuries to child surrogates due to sudden torso acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:25-40. SAE 841656.
1982	Kaleps I, Marcus JH. Predictions of child motion during panic braking and impact. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1982; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-229. SAE 821166.
1995	Thunnissen J, Wismans J, Ewing CL, Thomas DJ. Human volunteer head-neck response in frontal flexion: a new analysis. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:439-460. SAE 952721.
1997	Moffatt EA, Cooper ER, Croteau JJ, Parenteau C, Toglia A. Head excursion of seat belted cadaver, volunteers and Hybrid III ATD in a dynamic/static rollover fixture. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:509-525. SAE 973347.
1997	Zuppichini F, Bigi D, Buchi E, de Adamich A. How drivers behave in pre-impact emergency situations. In: Proceedings of the 1997 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1997; Hannover, Germany.433-441.
1980	Begeman PC, King AI, Levine RS, Viano DC. Biodynamic response of the musculoskeletal system to impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:479-509. SAE 801312.
1991	Czernakowski W. The effects of pre-impact braking on dynamic test performance of child restraint systems (CRS) in frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the 1991 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 11-13, 1991; Berlin, Germany.145-156.
1974	Aldman B, Andersson A, Saxmark O. Possible effects of airbag inflation on a standing child. In: Proceedings of the International Meeting on the Biomechanics of Trauma in Children. September 17-19, 1974; Lyon, France.194-215.
2001	Lorenz B, Kallieris D, Strohbeck-Kuehner P, Mattern R, Class U, Lueders M. Volunteer tests on human tolerance levels of pretension for reversible seatbelt tensioners in the pre-crash-phase phase I results: tests using a stationary vehicle. In: Proceedings of the 2001 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. October 10-12, 2001; Isle of Man, UK.
2004	Stemper BD, Yoganandan N, Pintar FA. Response corridors of the human head-neck complex in rear impact. In: 48th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). September 13-15, 2004; Key Biscayne, FL.149-163.
1996	Bauberger A, Schaper D. Belt pretensioning and standardized "slack" dummy. In: Proceedings of the 15th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 13-16, 1996; Melbourne, Australia.1791-1794.
1996	Thomas C, Perron T, Le Coz J-Y, Aguade V. What happens on the road before fatal car crashes? In: 40th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 7-9, 1996; Vancouver, BC.127-140.
1971	Patrick LM, Trosien KR. Volunteer, anthropometric dummy, and cadaver responses with three and four point restraints. In: Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition. January 11-15, 1971; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:256-280. SAE 710079.
1984	Wismans J, Spenny CH. Head-neck response in frontal flexion. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:161-171. SAE 841666.
2003	Tobata H, Takagi H, Pal C, Fukuda S. Development of pre-crash active seatbelt system for realworld safety. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 19-22, 2003; Nagoya, Japan.
1986	Wismans J, van Oorschot H, Woltring HJ. Omni-directional human head-neck response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:313-331. SAE 861893.
1997	Pilatus K, Oertel D, Fischer J. Seat belts and head restraints: the daily use. In: Proceedings of the 1997 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1997; Hannover, Germany.449-450.
1987	Campbell BJ. Safety belt injury reduction related to crash severity and front seated position. J Trauma. July 1987;27(7):733-739.
1997	Irwin A, Mertz HJ. Biomechanical basis for the CRABI and Hybrid III child dummies. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-12. SAE 973317.
1994	McGill S, Seguin J, Bennett G. Passive stiffness of the lumber torso in flexion, extension, lateral bending, and axial roatation: effect of belt wearing and breath holding. Spine. March 15, 1994;19(6):696-704.
1999	Davidsson J, Lovsund P, Ono K, Svensson MY, Inami S. A comparison between volunteer, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III performance in rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.165-178.
1991	McGill SM. Electromyographic activity of the abdominal and low back musculature during the generation of isometric and dynamic axial trunk torque: implications for lumbar mechanics. J Orthop Res. January 1991;9(1):91-103.
2001	Matsumoto S, Yasuda T, Kimura T, Takahama T, Toyota H. Development of the Nissan ASV-2. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
1996	de Leva P. Adjustments to Zatsiorsky-Seluyanov's segment inertia parameters. J Biomech. September 1996;29(9):1223-1230.
2005	Otte D, Krettek C. Rollover accidents of cars in the German road traffic: an in-depth analysis of injury and deformation pattern by GIDAS. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.
1974	Hendler E, O'Rourke J, Schulman M, Katzeff M, Domzalski L, Rodgers S. Effect of head and body position and muscular tensing on response to impact. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:303-337. SAE 741184.
2003	Lessley D, Crandall J, Shaw G, Kent R, Funk J. Normalization technique for developing corridors from individual subject responses. In: Proceedings of the 31st International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. October 23, 2003; San Diego, CA.213-229.
2002	Parenteau C, Shah M, Steffan H, Hofinger M. Volunteer and dummy head kinematics in low-speed lateral sled tests. Traffic Inj Prev. 2002;3(3):233-240.
1999	Kümpfbeck M, Oertel D, Pilatus K. Occupant kinematics during emergency braking: an investigatioautolivn with regard to the out of position issue for passengers. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.443-454.
1989	Zuppichini F. Effectiveness of a mechanical pretensioner on the performance of seat belts. In: Proceedings of the 1989 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 13-15, 1989; Stockholm, Sweden.93-98.
2002	Viano DC, Davidsson J. Neck displacements of volunteers, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III in rear impacts: implications to whiplash assessment by a neck displacement criterion (NDC). Traffic Inj Prev. 2002;3(2):105-116.
1982	L‘Abbé RJ, Dainty DA, Newman JA. An experimental analysis of thoracic deflection response to belt loading. In: Proceedings of the 1982 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 8-10, 1982; Cologne, Germany.184-194.
2002	Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Gennarelli TA, Maltese MR, Eppinger RH. Biofidelity evaluation of recent side impact dummies. In: Proceedings of the 2002 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 18-20, 2002; Munich, Germany.
2001	Siegmund GP. The Reflex Response of Human Neck Muscles to Whiplash-Like Perturbations [PhD thesis]. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia; June 2001.

Year

Entry

1986

Backaitis SH, St-Laurent A. Chest deflection characteristics of volunteers and Hybrid III dummies. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:157-166. SAE 861884.

1998

Davidsson J, Deutscher C, Hell W, Linder A, Lövsund P, Svensson MY. Human volunteer kinematics in rear-end sled collisions. In: Proceedings of the 1998 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 16-18, 1998; Göteberg, Sweden.289-301.

1997

Ono K, Kaneoka K, Wittek A, Kajzer J. Cervical injury mechanism based on the analysis of human cervical vertebral motion and head-neck-torso kinematics during low speed rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-356. SAE 973340.

2001

Mertz HJ, Jarrett K, Moss S, Salloum M, Zhao Y. The Hybrid III 10-year-old dummy. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:319-328. SAE 2001-22-0014.

1979

Cheng R, Mital NK, Levine RS, King AI. Biodynamics of the living human spine during -gx impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1979; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:723-763. SAE 791027.

2002

Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.

2000

Watanabe Y, Ichikawa H, Kayama O, Ono K, Kaneoka K, Inami S. Influence of seat characteristics on occupant motion in low-speed rear impacts. Accid Anal Prev. March 2000;32(2):243-250.

2007

Good C, Viano D, McPhee J, Ronsky J. Modeling biomechanics of volunteers subject to loading by a motorized shoulder belt tensioner. In: Proceedings of the 2007 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 19-21, 2007; Maastricht, The Netherlands.381-384.

2001

Baumann K-H, Schöneburg R, Justen R. The vision of a comprehensive safety concept. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1993

Söderkvist I, Wedin P-Å. Determining the movements of the skeleton using well-configured markers. J Biomech. December 1993;26(12):1473-1477.

1967

Bohlin NI. A statistical analysis of 28,000 accident cases with emphasis on occupant restraint value. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 10-11, 1967; Anaheim, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:455-478. SAE 670925.

1978

Mital NK, Cheng R, Levine RS, King AI. Dynamic characteristics of the human spine during -gx acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:141-165. SAE 780889.

1989

Mertz HJ, Irwin AL, Melvin JW, Stalnaker RL, Beebe MS. Size, weight and biomechanical impact response requirements for adult size small female and large male dummies. In: Proceedings of the SAE International Congress & Exposition. February 27–March 3, 1989; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 890756.

1984

Mertz HJ. A procedure for normalizing impact response data. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-8. SAE 840884.

1981

Patrick LM. Impact force-deflection the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:471-496. SAE 811014.

1975

Nyquist GW, Murton CJ. Static bending response of the human lower torso. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:513-541. SAE 751158.

1998

Zellmer H, Lührs S, Brüggemann K. Optimized restraint systems for rear seat passengers. In: Proceedings of the 16th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 31–June 4, 1998; Windsor, Ontario, Canada.316-326.

1980

McConville JT, Churchill TD, Kaleps I, Clauser CE, Cuzzi J. Anthropometric Relationships of Body and Body Segment Moments of Inertia. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory; December 1980. Report No. AFAMRL-TR-80-119.

1973

Lobdell TE, Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Hering WE, Nahum AM. Impact response of the human thorax. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:201-243.

1991

Evans L. Traffic Safety and the Driver. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1991.

1982

Mertz HJ, Driscoll GD, Lenox JB, Nyquist GW, Weber DA. Responses of animals exposed to deployment of various passenger inflatable restraint system concepts for a variety of collision severities and animal positions. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.352-368.

1986

Evans L. The effectiveness of safety belts in preventing fatalities. Accid Anal Prev. June 1986;18(3):229-241.

1993

Mertz HJ. Anthropomorphic test devices. In: Nahum AM, Melvin JW, eds. Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1993:66-84.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

1984

Prasad P, Daniel RP. A biomechanical analysis of head, neck, and torso injuries to child surrogates due to sudden torso acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:25-40. SAE 841656.

1982

Kaleps I, Marcus JH. Predictions of child motion during panic braking and impact. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 20-21, 1982; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:207-229. SAE 821166.

1995

Thunnissen J, Wismans J, Ewing CL, Thomas DJ. Human volunteer head-neck response in frontal flexion: a new analysis. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:439-460. SAE 952721.

1997

Moffatt EA, Cooper ER, Croteau JJ, Parenteau C, Toglia A. Head excursion of seat belted cadaver, volunteers and Hybrid III ATD in a dynamic/static rollover fixture. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:509-525. SAE 973347.

1997

Zuppichini F, Bigi D, Buchi E, de Adamich A. How drivers behave in pre-impact emergency situations. In: Proceedings of the 1997 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1997; Hannover, Germany.433-441.

1980

Begeman PC, King AI, Levine RS, Viano DC. Biodynamic response of the musculoskeletal system to impact acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:479-509. SAE 801312.

1991

Czernakowski W. The effects of pre-impact braking on dynamic test performance of child restraint systems (CRS) in frontal impacts. In: Proceedings of the 1991 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 11-13, 1991; Berlin, Germany.145-156.

1974

Aldman B, Andersson A, Saxmark O. Possible effects of airbag inflation on a standing child. In: Proceedings of the International Meeting on the Biomechanics of Trauma in Children. September 17-19, 1974; Lyon, France.194-215.

2001

Lorenz B, Kallieris D, Strohbeck-Kuehner P, Mattern R, Class U, Lueders M. Volunteer tests on human tolerance levels of pretension for reversible seatbelt tensioners in the pre-crash-phase phase I results: tests using a stationary vehicle. In: Proceedings of the 2001 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. October 10-12, 2001; Isle of Man, UK.

2004

Stemper BD, Yoganandan N, Pintar FA. Response corridors of the human head-neck complex in rear impact. In: 48th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). September 13-15, 2004; Key Biscayne, FL.149-163.

1996

Bauberger A, Schaper D. Belt pretensioning and standardized "slack" dummy. In: Proceedings of the 15th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 13-16, 1996; Melbourne, Australia.1791-1794.

1996

Thomas C, Perron T, Le Coz J-Y, Aguade V. What happens on the road before fatal car crashes? In: 40th Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). October 7-9, 1996; Vancouver, BC.127-140.

1971

Patrick LM, Trosien KR. Volunteer, anthropometric dummy, and cadaver responses with three and four point restraints. In: Proceedings of the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition. January 11-15, 1971; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:256-280. SAE 710079.

1984

Wismans J, Spenny CH. Head-neck response in frontal flexion. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:161-171. SAE 841666.

2003

Tobata H, Takagi H, Pal C, Fukuda S. Development of pre-crash active seatbelt system for realworld safety. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 19-22, 2003; Nagoya, Japan.

1986

Wismans J, van Oorschot H, Woltring HJ. Omni-directional human head-neck response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:313-331. SAE 861893.

1997

Pilatus K, Oertel D, Fischer J. Seat belts and head restraints: the daily use. In: Proceedings of the 1997 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1997; Hannover, Germany.449-450.

1987

Campbell BJ. Safety belt injury reduction related to crash severity and front seated position. J Trauma. July 1987;27(7):733-739.

1997

Irwin A, Mertz HJ. Biomechanical basis for the CRABI and Hybrid III child dummies. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:1-12. SAE 973317.

1994

McGill S, Seguin J, Bennett G. Passive stiffness of the lumber torso in flexion, extension, lateral bending, and axial roatation: effect of belt wearing and breath holding. Spine. March 15, 1994;19(6):696-704.

1999

Davidsson J, Lovsund P, Ono K, Svensson MY, Inami S. A comparison between volunteer, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III performance in rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.165-178.

1991

McGill SM. Electromyographic activity of the abdominal and low back musculature during the generation of isometric and dynamic axial trunk torque: implications for lumbar mechanics. J Orthop Res. January 1991;9(1):91-103.

2001

Matsumoto S, Yasuda T, Kimura T, Takahama T, Toyota H. Development of the Nissan ASV-2. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 4-7, 2001; Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

1996

de Leva P. Adjustments to Zatsiorsky-Seluyanov's segment inertia parameters. J Biomech. September 1996;29(9):1223-1230.

2005

Otte D, Krettek C. Rollover accidents of cars in the German road traffic: an in-depth analysis of injury and deformation pattern by GIDAS. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). June 6-9, 2005; Washington, DC.

1974

Hendler E, O'Rourke J, Schulman M, Katzeff M, Domzalski L, Rodgers S. Effect of head and body position and muscular tensing on response to impact. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:303-337. SAE 741184.

2003

Lessley D, Crandall J, Shaw G, Kent R, Funk J. Normalization technique for developing corridors from individual subject responses. In: Proceedings of the 31st International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. October 23, 2003; San Diego, CA.213-229.

2002

Parenteau C, Shah M, Steffan H, Hofinger M. Volunteer and dummy head kinematics in low-speed lateral sled tests. Traffic Inj Prev. 2002;3(3):233-240.

1999

Kümpfbeck M, Oertel D, Pilatus K. Occupant kinematics during emergency braking: an investigatioautolivn with regard to the out of position issue for passengers. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.443-454.

1989

Zuppichini F. Effectiveness of a mechanical pretensioner on the performance of seat belts. In: Proceedings of the 1989 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 13-15, 1989; Stockholm, Sweden.93-98.

2002

Viano DC, Davidsson J. Neck displacements of volunteers, BioRID P3 and Hybrid III in rear impacts: implications to whiplash assessment by a neck displacement criterion (NDC). Traffic Inj Prev. 2002;3(2):105-116.

1982

L‘Abbé RJ, Dainty DA, Newman JA. An experimental analysis of thoracic deflection response to belt loading. In: Proceedings of the 1982 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 8-10, 1982; Cologne, Germany.184-194.

2002

Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Gennarelli TA, Maltese MR, Eppinger RH. Biofidelity evaluation of recent side impact dummies. In: Proceedings of the 2002 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 18-20, 2002; Munich, Germany.

2001

Siegmund GP. The Reflex Response of Human Neck Muscles to Whiplash-Like Perturbations [PhD thesis]. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia; June 2001.

Year	Entry
2007	Good C, Viano D, McPhee J, Ronsky J. Modeling biomechanics of volunteers subject to loading by a motorized shoulder belt tensioner. In: Proceedings of the 2007 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 19-21, 2007; Maastricht, The Netherlands.381-384.

Year

Entry

2007