Biomechanics of Jaw Loading in Football Helmet Impacts

The specific aims of this study included: 1) the documentation of trends observed in National Football League (NFL) facemask impact cases, 2) the proposal of impact methods to evaluate helmets, chin straps, facemasks and other protective equipment that may play a role in head impact response and helmet retention, 3) the determination of the role of the chin strap and facemask in head impact response and helmet retention, 4) the determination of biomechanical response corridors of the human mandible under direct loading to the chin, and 5) the documentation of articulating jaw surrogate requirements, the comparison of chin impact response performance of human surrogates and the recommendations for further surrogate refinement and validation.

Evaluation of NFL game film found that a potential for significant chin strap loading of the jaw was present in 21% of cases. Facemask impacts were divided into three groups. Current and proposed linear impactor test conditions were recommended for evaluation of football head protection. The response of a helmeted surrogate in the recommended conditions found head/neck response and helmet retention to be sensitive to chin strap attachment. Additionally, a positive correlation was found between head impact response and jaw loading, supporting the hypotheses that chin strap loading contributes to concussion.

Biomechanical response corridors for chin impact loading of cadavers under conditions simulating the loading seen in football were established. The force-time and force-deflection corridors formed the basis for evaluation of current and new surrogate headforms. A fracture tolerance curve for males 70 years old and under was also proposed.

Requirements for a biomechanical surrogate with an articulating jaw were documented. Surrogates with fixed and articulating jaws were tested under the chin impact corridor conditions. Results were compared against the corridors and to mean cadaver response using a cumulative variance technique. As a result of testing, a Hybrid III surrogate with an articulating jaw was recommended with some modifications. The results of this research provide a foundation for future articulating jaw surrogate development/validation and alternative avenues and test methods for making continuous improvements in football helmet design related to facemask and chin strap loading.

Year	Entry
1970	Yamada H. Strength of Biological Materials. Evans FG, ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins Company; 1970.
1975	Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.
1999	Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA. September 8, 1999;282(10):958-963.
2003	Mertz HJ, Irwin AL, Prasad P. Biomechanical and scaling bases for frontal and side impact injury assessment reference values. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:155-188. SAE 2003-22-0009.
1976	Eppinger RH. Prediction of thoracic injury using measurable experimental parameters. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.770-780.
1974	Hubbard RP, McLeod DG. Definition and development of a crash dummy head. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:599-628. SAE 741193.
1975	Neathery RF, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Prediction of thoracic injury from dummy responses. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:295-316. SAE 751151.
1983	Marcus JH, Morgan RM, Eppinger RH, Kallieris D, Mattern R, Schmidt G. Human response to and injury from lateral impact. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1983; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:419-432. SAE 831634.
1995	King AI, Viano DC, Mizeres N, States JD. Humanitarian benefits of cadaver research on injury prevention. J Trauma. April 1995;38(4):564-569.
1973	McLeod DG, Gadd CW. An anatomical skull for impact testing. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:153-163.
2006	Brolinson PG, Manoogian S, McNeely D, Goforth M, Greenwald R, Duma S. Analysis of linear head accelerations from collegiate football impacts. Curr Sports Med Rep. February 2006;5(1):23-28.
2004	Walilko TJ. Biomechanical Response of the Temporomandibular Joint from Impacts in Boxing [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; December 2004.
1972	Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact studies of facial bones and skull. In: Proceedings of the 16th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1972; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:186-203. SAE 720965.
1986	Kleerekoper M, Feldkamp LA, Goldstein SA. The effect of aging on the skeleton: implications for changes in tolerance. In: Biomechanics and Medical Aspects of Lower Limb Injuries. Symposium on Biomechanics and Medical Aspects of Lower Limb Injuries; October 29-30, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineering:91-96. SAE 861926.
1974	Wall JC, Hutton WC, Cyron BM. The effects of age and strain rate on the mechanical properties of bone. In: Proceedings of the International Meeting on the Biomechanics of Trauma in Children. September 17-19, 1974; Lyon, France.185-193.
1984	Prasad P, Mertz HJ. The position of the United States delegation to the ISO working group 6 on the use of HIC in the automotive environment. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 20-23, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 851246.
1982	Mertz HJ, Weber DA. Interpretations of the impact responses of a 3-year-old child dummy relative to child injury potential. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.368-376.
1997	Lyons CG, Brady CL, Simms C. An investigation of damage to the human temporomandibular joint during cranial accelerations. In: 41st Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). November 10-11, 1997; Orlando, FL.315-329.
2004	Bir C, Viano D, King A. Development of biomechanical response corridors of the thorax to blunt ballistic impacts. J Biomech. January 2004;37(1):73-79.
1998	Zioupos P, Currey JD. Changes in the stiffness, strength, and toughness of human cortical bone with age. Bone. January 1998;22(1):57-66.
2002	Irwin AL, Mertz HJ, Elhagediab AM, Moss S. Guidelines for assessing the biofidelity of side impact dummies of various sizes and ages. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:297-319. SAE 2002-22-0016.
1968	Nahum AM, Gatts JD, Gadd CW, Danforth J. Impact tolerance of the skull and face. In: Proceedings of the 12th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 22-23, 1968; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:302-316. SAE 680785.
1988	Allsop DL, Warner CY, Wille MG, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Facial impact response: a comparison of the Hybrid III dummy and human cadaver. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1988; Atlanta, GA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-155. SAE 881719.
2002	Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.
2006	Manoogian S, McNeely D, Duma S, Brolinson G, Greenwald R. Head acceleration is less than 10 percent of helmet acceleration in football impacts. In: Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation. Vol 48. Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Bioengineering Symposium & International ISA Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation Symposium; April 7-9, 2006; Terre Haute, IN.383-388.
2002	Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Leclerc S, Johnston KM. Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clin J Sport Med. November 2002;2(6):331-338.
1986	Nyquist GW, Cavanaugh JM, Goldberg SJ, King AI. Facial impact tolerance and response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:379-400. SAE 861896.
1981	Tarrière C, Leung YC, Fayon A, Got C, Patel A, Banzet P. Field facial injuries and study of their simulation with dummy. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:435-468. SAE 811013.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
1977	Foster JK, Kortge JO, Wolanin MJ. Hybrid III: a biomechanically-based crash test dummy. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:975-1014. SAE 770938.
2003	Pellman EJ. Background on the National Football League's research on concussion in professional football. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):797-798.
1975	Currey JD, Butler G. The mechanical properties of bone tissue in children. J Bone Joint Surg. September 1975;57A(6):810-814.
1983	Gerberich SG, Priest JD, Boen JR, Straub CP, Maxwell RE. Concussion incidences and severity in secondary school varsity football players. Am J Public Health. 1983;73(12):1370-1375.
1975	Hodgson VR. National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment football helmet certification program. Med Sci Sports. F, 1975;7(2):225-232.
2001	Langburt W, Cohen B, Akhthar N, O’Neill K, Lee J-C. Incidence of concussion in high school football players of Ohio and Pennsylvania. J Child Neurol. February 2001;16(2):83-85.
1984	Newman JA, Gallup BM. Biofidelity improvements to the Hybrid III headform. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:87-99. SAE 841659.
2001	Hardy WN, Schneider LW, Rouhana SW. Abdominal impact response to rigid-bar, seatbelt, and airbag loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:1-32. SAE 2001-22-0001.
1967	Hodgson VR. Tolerance of the facial bones to impact. Am J Anat. 1967;120(1):113-122.
1993	McCalden RW, McGeough JA, Barker MB, Court-Brown CM. Age-related changes in the tensile properties of cortical bone: the relative importance of changes in porosity, mineralization, and microstructure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1993;75A(8):1193-1205.
1985	Ward C. Dynamic biofidelity of the Part 572 and Hybrid III anthropomorphic test dummy heads. In: Proceedings of the 1985 International IRCOBI/AAAM Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1985; Göteborg, Sweden.177-190.
2006	Wheeldon JA, Pintar FA, Knowles S, Yoganandan N. Experimental flexion/extension data corridors for validation of finite element models of the young, normal cervical spine. J Biomech. 2006;39(2):375-380.
1994	Hopper RH Jr, McElhaney JH, Myers BS. Mandibular and basilar skull fracture tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:123-131. SAE 942213.
1989	Perl TR, Nilsson S, Planath I, Wille MG. Deformable load sensing Hybrid III face. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:29-42. SAE 892427.
1997	McCrea M, Kelly JP, Kluge J, Ackley B, Randolph C. Standardized assessment of concussion in football players. Neurology. March 1997;48(3):586-588.
1973	Hubbard RP, McLeod DG. A basis for crash dummy skull and head geometry. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:129-152.
1979	Wall JC, Chatterji SK, Jeffery JW. Age-related changes in the density and tensile strength of human femoral cortical bone. Calcif Tiss Int. December 1979;27(1):105-108.
2005	Duma SM, Manoogian SJ, Bussone WR, Brolinson PG, Goforth MW, Donnenwerth JJ, Greenwald RM, Chu JJ, Crisco JJ. Analysis of real-time head accelerations in collegiate football players. Clin J Sport Med. January 2005;15(1):3-8.
1971	Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:84-134. SAE 710851.
1984	Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.
2002	Rhule HH, Maltese MR, Donnelly BR, Eppinger RH, Brunner JK, Bolte JH IV. Development of a new biofidelity ranking system for anthropomorphic test devices. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:477-512. SAE 2002-22-0024.
1967	Lindahl O, Lindgren ÅGH. Cortical bone in man, II: variation in tensile strength with age and sex. Acta Orthop Scand. 1967;38(2):141-147.
1996	Zhou Q, Rouhana SW, Melvin JW. Age effects on thoracic injury tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-6, 1996; Albuquerque, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:137-148. SAE 962421.
1982	Eppinger RH, Morgan RM, Marcus JH. Side impact data analysis. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.244-250.
2006	Viano DC, Pellman EJ, Withnall C, Shewchenko N. Concussion in professional football: performance of newer helmets in reconstructed game impacts: part 13. Neurosurgery. September 2006;59(3):591-606.
1995	Melvin JW, Little WC, Smrcka J, Zhu Y, Salloum MJ. A biomechanical face for the Hybrid III dummy. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-151. SAE 952715.
1966	Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.
2007	Schnebel B, Gwin JT, Anderson S, Gatlin R. In vivo study of head impacts in football: a comparison of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I versus high school impacts. Neurosurgery. March 2007;60(3):490-496.
1979	Currey JD. Changes in the impact energy absorption of bone with age. J Biomech. 1979;12(6):459-469.
1976	Burstein AH, Reilly DT, Martens M. Aging of bone tissue: mechanical properties. J Bone Joint Surg. 1976;58A(1):82-86.
2007	Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Stemper BD, Gennarelli TA, Weigelt JA. Biomechanics of side impact: injury criteria, aging occupants, and airbag technology. J Biomech. 2007;40(2):227-243.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.
2006	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.
2004	Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.

Year

Entry

1970

Yamada H. Strength of Biological Materials. Evans FG, ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins Company; 1970.

1975

Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.

1999

Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA. September 8, 1999;282(10):958-963.

2003

Mertz HJ, Irwin AL, Prasad P. Biomechanical and scaling bases for frontal and side impact injury assessment reference values. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:155-188. SAE 2003-22-0009.

1976

Eppinger RH. Prediction of thoracic injury using measurable experimental parameters. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). October 12-15, 1976; Washington, D.C.770-780.

1974

Hubbard RP, McLeod DG. Definition and development of a crash dummy head. In: Proceedings of the 18th Stapp Car Crash Conference. December 4-5, 1974; Ann Arbor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:599-628. SAE 741193.

1975

Neathery RF, Kroell CK, Mertz HJ. Prediction of thoracic injury from dummy responses. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:295-316. SAE 751151.

1983

Marcus JH, Morgan RM, Eppinger RH, Kallieris D, Mattern R, Schmidt G. Human response to and injury from lateral impact. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1983; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:419-432. SAE 831634.

1995

King AI, Viano DC, Mizeres N, States JD. Humanitarian benefits of cadaver research on injury prevention. J Trauma. April 1995;38(4):564-569.

1973

McLeod DG, Gadd CW. An anatomical skull for impact testing. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:153-163.

2006

Brolinson PG, Manoogian S, McNeely D, Goforth M, Greenwald R, Duma S. Analysis of linear head accelerations from collegiate football impacts. Curr Sports Med Rep. February 2006;5(1):23-28.

2004

Walilko TJ. Biomechanical Response of the Temporomandibular Joint from Impacts in Boxing [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; December 2004.

1972

Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact studies of facial bones and skull. In: Proceedings of the 16th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1972; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:186-203. SAE 720965.

1986

Kleerekoper M, Feldkamp LA, Goldstein SA. The effect of aging on the skeleton: implications for changes in tolerance. In: Biomechanics and Medical Aspects of Lower Limb Injuries. Symposium on Biomechanics and Medical Aspects of Lower Limb Injuries; October 29-30, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineering:91-96. SAE 861926.

1974

Wall JC, Hutton WC, Cyron BM. The effects of age and strain rate on the mechanical properties of bone. In: Proceedings of the International Meeting on the Biomechanics of Trauma in Children. September 17-19, 1974; Lyon, France.185-193.

1984

Prasad P, Mertz HJ. The position of the United States delegation to the ISO working group 6 on the use of HIC in the automotive environment. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 20-23, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 851246.

1982

Mertz HJ, Weber DA. Interpretations of the impact responses of a 3-year-old child dummy relative to child injury potential. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.368-376.

1997

Lyons CG, Brady CL, Simms C. An investigation of damage to the human temporomandibular joint during cranial accelerations. In: 41st Annual Proceedings, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM). November 10-11, 1997; Orlando, FL.315-329.

2004

Bir C, Viano D, King A. Development of biomechanical response corridors of the thorax to blunt ballistic impacts. J Biomech. January 2004;37(1):73-79.

1998

Zioupos P, Currey JD. Changes in the stiffness, strength, and toughness of human cortical bone with age. Bone. January 1998;22(1):57-66.

2002

Irwin AL, Mertz HJ, Elhagediab AM, Moss S. Guidelines for assessing the biofidelity of side impact dummies of various sizes and ages. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:297-319. SAE 2002-22-0016.

1968

Nahum AM, Gatts JD, Gadd CW, Danforth J. Impact tolerance of the skull and face. In: Proceedings of the 12th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 22-23, 1968; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:302-316. SAE 680785.

1988

Allsop DL, Warner CY, Wille MG, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Facial impact response: a comparison of the Hybrid III dummy and human cadaver. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1988; Atlanta, GA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-155. SAE 881719.

2002

Maltese MR, Eppinger RH, Rhule HH, Donnelly BR, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N. Response corridors of human surrogates in lateral impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:321-351. SAE 2002-22-0017.

2006

Manoogian S, McNeely D, Duma S, Brolinson G, Greenwald R. Head acceleration is less than 10 percent of helmet acceleration in football impacts. In: Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation. Vol 48. Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Bioengineering Symposium & International ISA Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation Symposium; April 7-9, 2006; Terre Haute, IN.383-388.

2002

Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Leclerc S, Johnston KM. Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clin J Sport Med. November 2002;2(6):331-338.

1986

Nyquist GW, Cavanaugh JM, Goldberg SJ, King AI. Facial impact tolerance and response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:379-400. SAE 861896.

1981

Tarrière C, Leung YC, Fayon A, Got C, Patel A, Banzet P. Field facial injuries and study of their simulation with dummy. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference. September 28-30, 1981; San Francisco, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:435-468. SAE 811013.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

1977

Foster JK, Kortge JO, Wolanin MJ. Hybrid III: a biomechanically-based crash test dummy. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:975-1014. SAE 770938.

2003

Pellman EJ. Background on the National Football League's research on concussion in professional football. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):797-798.

1975

Currey JD, Butler G. The mechanical properties of bone tissue in children. J Bone Joint Surg. September 1975;57A(6):810-814.

1983

Gerberich SG, Priest JD, Boen JR, Straub CP, Maxwell RE. Concussion incidences and severity in secondary school varsity football players. Am J Public Health. 1983;73(12):1370-1375.

1975

Hodgson VR. National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment football helmet certification program. Med Sci Sports. F, 1975;7(2):225-232.

2001

Langburt W, Cohen B, Akhthar N, O’Neill K, Lee J-C. Incidence of concussion in high school football players of Ohio and Pennsylvania. J Child Neurol. February 2001;16(2):83-85.

1984

Newman JA, Gallup BM. Biofidelity improvements to the Hybrid III headform. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 6-7, 1984; Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:87-99. SAE 841659.

2001

Hardy WN, Schneider LW, Rouhana SW. Abdominal impact response to rigid-bar, seatbelt, and airbag loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:1-32. SAE 2001-22-0001.

1967

Hodgson VR. Tolerance of the facial bones to impact. Am J Anat. 1967;120(1):113-122.

1993

McCalden RW, McGeough JA, Barker MB, Court-Brown CM. Age-related changes in the tensile properties of cortical bone: the relative importance of changes in porosity, mineralization, and microstructure. J Bone Joint Surg. 1993;75A(8):1193-1205.

1985

Ward C. Dynamic biofidelity of the Part 572 and Hybrid III anthropomorphic test dummy heads. In: Proceedings of the 1985 International IRCOBI/AAAM Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 24-26, 1985; Göteborg, Sweden.177-190.

2006

Wheeldon JA, Pintar FA, Knowles S, Yoganandan N. Experimental flexion/extension data corridors for validation of finite element models of the young, normal cervical spine. J Biomech. 2006;39(2):375-380.

1994

Hopper RH Jr, McElhaney JH, Myers BS. Mandibular and basilar skull fracture tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:123-131. SAE 942213.

1989

Perl TR, Nilsson S, Planath I, Wille MG. Deformable load sensing Hybrid III face. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 4-6, 1989; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:29-42. SAE 892427.

1997

McCrea M, Kelly JP, Kluge J, Ackley B, Randolph C. Standardized assessment of concussion in football players. Neurology. March 1997;48(3):586-588.

1973

Hubbard RP, McLeod DG. A basis for crash dummy skull and head geometry. In: King WF, Mertz HJ, eds. Human Impact Response: Measurement and Simulation. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Impact Response held at the General Motors Research Laboratorie; October 2-3, 1972; Warren, MI. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1973:129-152.

1979

Wall JC, Chatterji SK, Jeffery JW. Age-related changes in the density and tensile strength of human femoral cortical bone. Calcif Tiss Int. December 1979;27(1):105-108.

2005

Duma SM, Manoogian SJ, Bussone WR, Brolinson PG, Goforth MW, Donnenwerth JJ, Greenwald RM, Chu JJ, Crisco JJ. Analysis of real-time head accelerations in collegiate football players. Clin J Sport Med. January 2005;15(1):3-8.

1971

Kroell CK, Schneider DC, Nahum AM. Impact tolerance and response of the human thorax. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1971; Coronado, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:84-134. SAE 710851.

1984

Eppinger RH, Marcus JH, Morgan RM. Development of dummy and injury index for NHTSA’s thoracic side impact protection research program. In: Proceedings of the SAE Government/industry Meeting & Exposition. May 21-24, 1984; Washington, DC. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 840885.

2002

Rhule HH, Maltese MR, Donnelly BR, Eppinger RH, Brunner JK, Bolte JH IV. Development of a new biofidelity ranking system for anthropomorphic test devices. Stapp Car Crash J. 2002;46:477-512. SAE 2002-22-0024.

1967

Lindahl O, Lindgren ÅGH. Cortical bone in man, II: variation in tensile strength with age and sex. Acta Orthop Scand. 1967;38(2):141-147.

1996

Zhou Q, Rouhana SW, Melvin JW. Age effects on thoracic injury tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 4-6, 1996; Albuquerque, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:137-148. SAE 962421.

1982

Eppinger RH, Morgan RM, Marcus JH. Side impact data analysis. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). November 1-4, 1982; Kyoto, Japan.244-250.

2006

Viano DC, Pellman EJ, Withnall C, Shewchenko N. Concussion in professional football: performance of newer helmets in reconstructed game impacts: part 13. Neurosurgery. September 2006;59(3):591-606.

1995

Melvin JW, Little WC, Smrcka J, Zhu Y, Salloum MJ. A biomechanical face for the Hybrid III dummy. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:139-151. SAE 952715.

1966

Gadd CW. Use of a weighted-impulse criterion for estimating injury hazard. In: Proceedings of the 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-9, 1966; Hollomon Air Force Base, NM. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:164-174. SAE 660793.

2007

Schnebel B, Gwin JT, Anderson S, Gatlin R. In vivo study of head impacts in football: a comparison of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I versus high school impacts. Neurosurgery. March 2007;60(3):490-496.

1979

Currey JD. Changes in the impact energy absorption of bone with age. J Biomech. 1979;12(6):459-469.

1976

Burstein AH, Reilly DT, Martens M. Aging of bone tissue: mechanical properties. J Bone Joint Surg. 1976;58A(1):82-86.

2007

Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Stemper BD, Gennarelli TA, Weigelt JA. Biomechanics of side impact: injury criteria, aging occupants, and airbag technology. J Biomech. 2007;40(2):227-243.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.

2006

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.

2004

Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.

Year	Entry
2007	Craig MJ, Bir CA, Viano DC. Jaw loading response of the human relative to current ATDs. In: Proceedings of the 35th International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. 2007.71-84.
2012	Viano DC, Withnall C, Wonnacott M. Effect of mouthguards on head responses and mandible forces in football helmet impacts. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):47-69.
2012	Viano DC, Withnall C, Halstead D. Impact performance of modern football helmets. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):160-174.
2012	Beckwith JG, Greenwald RM, Chu JJ. Measuring head kinematics in football: correlation between the head impact telemetry system and Hybrid III headform. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):237-248.
2013	Camarillo DB, Shull PB, Mattson J, Shultz R, Garza D. An instrumented mouthguard for measuring linear and angular head impact kinematics in American football. Ann Biomed Eng. September 2013;41(9):1939-1949.
2019	Bruneau D. Investigation of Head and Brain Response in Football Helmet Impacts Using a Finite Element Model of the Head and Neck With Active Muscle [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2019.

Year

Entry

2007

Craig MJ, Bir CA, Viano DC. Jaw loading response of the human relative to current ATDs. In: Proceedings of the 35th International Workshop on Human Subjects for Biomechanical Research. 2007.71-84.

2012

Viano DC, Withnall C, Wonnacott M. Effect of mouthguards on head responses and mandible forces in football helmet impacts. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):47-69.

2012

Viano DC, Withnall C, Halstead D. Impact performance of modern football helmets. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):160-174.

2012

Beckwith JG, Greenwald RM, Chu JJ. Measuring head kinematics in football: correlation between the head impact telemetry system and Hybrid III headform. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):237-248.

2013

Camarillo DB, Shull PB, Mattson J, Shultz R, Garza D. An instrumented mouthguard for measuring linear and angular head impact kinematics in American football. Ann Biomed Eng. September 2013;41(9):1939-1949.

2019

Bruneau D. Investigation of Head and Brain Response in Football Helmet Impacts Using a Finite Element Model of the Head and Neck With Active Muscle [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2019.