The Association Between Peak Resultant Linear Acceleration and Brain Tissue Deformation in American Football-Related Helmeted Head Impacts

The objective of this study was to determine the degree of association of peak resultant linear acceleration with maximum principal strain, von Mises stress, and strain rate in the cerebrum. Three prevalent head impact mechanisms in the sport of football were represented by impacting an accelerometer-outfitted Hybrid III headform. Head to head impacts were characterized using a linear impactor, falls to the ground using a monorail drop, and elbow or forearm strikes to the head by a pendulum system. Representative inbound impact velocities were selected according to epidemiological research. Impacts were performed at nine prescribed centric and non-centric sites on the head. Finite element modeling using the University College Brain Trauma Model was employed to obtain peak values of maximum principal strain, von Mises stress, and strain rate in the cerebrum. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients (r) were calculated between peak resultant linear acceleration of the head and peak MPS, VMS, and strain rate in order to determine the degree of correlation between the variables. This was determined for each impact mechanism and location as well as for all mechanisms together. Significant correlations (p<0.05) between peak linear acceleration and the three metrics of tissue deformation were found for particular mechanisms of impact. For each of MPS, VMS, and strain rate, impacts conducted on the pendulum system, meant to replicate arm to head impacts, did not have a significant correlation with linear acceleration. In contrast, the head to head mechanism of impact resulted in significant correlation coefficients between linear acceleration and all metrics of tissue deformation. The strength of the correlation was not significantly different when centric versus non-centric impact sites were compared. Overall, characteristics of a head impact such as the inbound energy, whether the vector of impact was centric or non-centric, and the degree of energy transfer that occurs through the head upon impact, likely play a role in the resulting degree of correlation between linear acceleration and brain tissue deformation.

Year	Entry
1998	Miller RT, Margulies SS, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Chen X, Smith DH, Meaney DF. Finite element modeling approaches for predicting injury in an experimental model of severe diffuse axonal injury. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:155-166. SAE 983154.
2000	Brands DWA, Bovendeerd PHM, Peter GWM, Wismans JSHM. The large shear strain dynamic behavior of in-vitro porcine brain tissue and a silicone gel model material. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:249-260. SAE 2000-01-SC17.
2006	Cater HL, Sundstrom LE, Morrison B III. Temporal development of hippocampal cell death is dependent on tissue strain but not strain rate. J Biomech. 2006;39(16):2810-2818.
1943	Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.
1993	Galbraith JA, Thibault LE, Matteson DR. Mechanical and electrical responses of the squid giant axon to simple elongation. J Biomech Eng. February 1993;115(1):13-22.
1999	Anderson RWG, Brown CJ, Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Finney JW, Jones NR, McLean AJ. Mechanisms of axonal injury: an experimental and numerical study of a sheep model of head impact. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.107-120.
1975	Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.
2007	Kleiven S. Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstructions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:81-114. SAE 2007-22-0003.
1994	Bandak FA, Eppinger RH. A three-dimensional finite element analysis of the human brain under combined rotational and translational accelerations. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:145-163. SAE 942215.
2003	Horgan TJ, Gilchrist MD. The creation of three-dimensional finite element models for simulating head impact biomechanics. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(4):353-366.
2002	Ommaya AK, Goldsmith W, Thibault L. Biomechanics and neuropathology of adult and paediatric head injury. Br J Neurosurg. June 2002;16(3):220-242.
1992	Trosseille X, Tarriére C, Lavaste F, Guillon F, Domont A. Development of a F.E.M. of the human head according to a specific test protocol. In: Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1992; Seattle, WA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:235-253. SAE 922527.
1995	Mendis KK, Stalnaker RL, Advani SH. A constitutive relationship for large deformation finite element modeling of brain tissue. J Biomech Eng. August 1995;117(3):279-285.
1995	King AI, Ruan JS, Zhou C, Hardy WN, Khalil TB. Recent advances in biomechanics of brain injury research: a review. J Neurotrauma. August 1995;12(4):651-658.
1986	Seemann MR, Muzzy WH III, Lustick LS. Comparison of human and Hybrid III head and neck dynamic response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:291-311. SAE 861892.
1994	Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. Shear stress distribution in the porcine brain due to rotational impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:133-143. SAE 942214.
2003	Morrison B III, Cater HL, Wang CC-B, Thomas FC, Hung CT, Ateshian GA, Sundstrom LE. A tissue level tolerance criterion for living brain developed with an in vitro model of traumatic mechanical loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:93-105. SAE 2003-22-0006.
2002	Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Leclerc S, Johnston KM. Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clin J Sport Med. November 2002;2(6):331-338.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.
2002	Kleiven S, von Holst H. Consequences of head size following trauma to the human head. J Biomech. 2002;35(2):153-160.
2010	Crisco JJ, Fiore R, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Brolinson PG, Duma S, McAllister TW, Duhaime A-C, Greenwald RM. Frequency and location of head impact exposures in individual collegiate football players. J Athl Train. November–December 2010;45(6):549-559.
2011	Crisco JJ, Wilcox BJ, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Duhaime A-C, Rowson S, Duma SM, Maerlender AC, McAllister TW, Greenwald RM. Head impact exposure in collegiate football players. J Biomech. October 13, 2011;44(15):2673.
1981	Gennarelli TA, Adams JH, Graham DI. Acceleration induced head-injury in the monkey, I: the model, its biomechanical and physiological correlates. Acta Neuropathol Suppl. 1981;7:23-25.
2001	Langburt W, Cohen B, Akhthar N, O’Neill K, Lee J-C. Incidence of concussion in high school football players of Ohio and Pennsylvania. J Child Neurol. February 2001;16(2):83-85.
1997	Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Meaney DF. In vivo thresholds for mechanical injury to the blood-brain barrier. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:277-291. SAE 973335.
1998	Thurman DJ, Branche CM, Sniezek JE. The epidemiology of sports-related traumatic brain injuries in the United States: recent developments. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1998;13(2):1-8.
2001	Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.
2012	Marar M, McIlvain NM, Fields SK, Comstock RD. Epidemiology of concussions among U States high school athletes in 20 sports. Am J Sports Med. April 2012;40(4):747-755.
1972	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Ommaya AK. Pathophysiologic responses to rotational and translational accelerations of the head. In: Proceedings of the 16th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1972; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:296-308. SAE 720970.
2004	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.
2000	Bain AC, Meaney DF. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng. December 2000;122(6):615-622.
1953	Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Latimer FR, Haddad BF, Webster JE. Quantitative determination of acceleration and intracranial pressure in experimental head injury: preliminary report. Neurology. 1953;3(6):417-423.
1955	Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Observations on the mechanism of brain concussion, contusion, and laceration. Surg Gynecol Obstet. December 1955;101(6):680-690.
2005	Horgan TJ. A Finite Element Model of the Human Head for Use in the Study of Pedestrian Accidents [PhD thesis]. Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin; 2005.
2004	Horgan TJ, Gilchrist MD. Influence of FE model variability in predicting brain motion and intracranial pressure changes in head impact simulations. Int J Crashworthiness. 2004;9(4):401-418.
2003	Pellman EJ. Background on the National Football League's research on concussion in professional football. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):797-798.
2000	Guskiewicz KM, Weaver NL, Padua DA, Garrett WE Jr. Epidemiology of concussion in collegiate and high school football players. Am J Sports Med. September 2000;28(5):643-650.
2007	Schnebel B, Gwin JT, Anderson S, Gatlin R. In vivo study of head impacts in football: a comparison of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I versus high school impacts. Neurosurgery. March 2007;60(3):490-496.
2006	Doorly MC, Gilchrist MD. The use of accident reconstruction for the analysis of traumatic brain injury due to head impacts arising from falls. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2006;9(6):371-377.
2003	Willinger R, Baumgartner D. Human head tolerance limits to specific injury mechanisms. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(6):605-617.
2013	Patton DA, McIntosh AS, Kleiven S. The biomechanical determinants of concussion: finite element simulations to investigate brain tissue deformations during sporting impacts to the unprotected head. J Appl Biomech. December 2013;29(6):721-730.
2002	Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.
1975	Ward CC, Thompson RB. The development of a detailed finite element brain model. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:641-674. SAE 751163.
1993	Ruan JS, Khalil TB, King AI. Finite element modeling of direct head impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:69-81. SAE 933114.
2011	Forero Rueda MA, Cuia L, Gilchrist MD. Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2011;14(12):1021-1031.
1985	Thibault LE, Gennarelli TA. Biomechanics of diffuse brain injuries. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.79-85. SAE 856022.
1977	Nahum AM, Smith R, Ward CC. Intracranial pressure dynamics during head impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-366. SAE 770922.
2005	Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Bailes J, McCrea M, Cantu RC, Randolph C, Jordan BD. Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. Neurosurgery. October 2005;57(4):719-724.
1997	Kang H-S, Willinger R, Diaw BM, Chinn B. Validation of a 3D anatomic human head model and replication of head impact in motorcycle accident by finite element modeling. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:329-338. SAE 973339.
2001	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Comparison of brain responses between frontal and lateral impacts by finite element modeling. J Neurotrauma. 2001;18(1):21-30.
2001	Zhang L. Computational Biomechanics of Traumatic Brain Injury: An Investigation of Head Impact Response and American Football Head Injury [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; May 2001.
1995	Willinger R, Taleb L, Kopp C-M. Modal and temporal analysis of head mathematical models. J Neurotrauma. August 1995;12(4):743-754.
2012	Post A, Oeur A, Hoshizaki B, Gilchrist MD. The influence of centric and non‐centric impacts to American football helmets on the correlation between commonly used metrics in brain injury research. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.419-429.
1989	Deng Y-C. Anthropomorphic dummy neck modeling and injury considerations. Accid Anal Prev. February 1989;21(1):85-100.
2012	Post A, Hoshizaki TB. Mechanisms of brain impact injuries and their prediction: a review. Trauma. October 2012;14(4):327-349.
1989	Viano DC, Lau IV, Asbury C, King AI, Begeman P. Biomechanics of the human chest, abdomen, and pelvis in lateral impact. Accid Anal Prev. 1989;21(6):553-574.
2003	Cantu RC, Mueller FO. Brain injury-related fatalities in American football, 1945–1999. Neurosurgery. April 2003;52(4):846-853.
2008	Takhounts EG, Ridella SA, Hasija V, Tannous RE, Campbell JQ, Malone D, Danelson K, Stitzel J, Rowson S, Duma S. Investigation of traumatic brain injuries using the next generation of Simulated Injury Monitor (SIMon) finite element head model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:1-31. SAE 2008-22-0001.
2006	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.
2004	Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.

Year

Entry

1998

Miller RT, Margulies SS, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Chen X, Smith DH, Meaney DF. Finite element modeling approaches for predicting injury in an experimental model of severe diffuse axonal injury. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:155-166. SAE 983154.

2000

Brands DWA, Bovendeerd PHM, Peter GWM, Wismans JSHM. The large shear strain dynamic behavior of in-vitro porcine brain tissue and a silicone gel model material. Stapp Car Crash J. 2000;44:249-260. SAE 2000-01-SC17.

2006

Cater HL, Sundstrom LE, Morrison B III. Temporal development of hippocampal cell death is dependent on tissue strain but not strain rate. J Biomech. 2006;39(16):2810-2818.

1943

Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.

1993

Galbraith JA, Thibault LE, Matteson DR. Mechanical and electrical responses of the squid giant axon to simple elongation. J Biomech Eng. February 1993;115(1):13-22.

1999

Anderson RWG, Brown CJ, Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Finney JW, Jones NR, McLean AJ. Mechanisms of axonal injury: an experimental and numerical study of a sheep model of head impact. In: Proceedings of the 1999 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 23-24, 1999; Sitges, Spain.107-120.

1975

Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.

2007

Kleiven S. Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstructions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:81-114. SAE 2007-22-0003.

1994

Bandak FA, Eppinger RH. A three-dimensional finite element analysis of the human brain under combined rotational and translational accelerations. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:145-163. SAE 942215.

2003

Horgan TJ, Gilchrist MD. The creation of three-dimensional finite element models for simulating head impact biomechanics. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(4):353-366.

2002

Ommaya AK, Goldsmith W, Thibault L. Biomechanics and neuropathology of adult and paediatric head injury. Br J Neurosurg. June 2002;16(3):220-242.

1992

Trosseille X, Tarriére C, Lavaste F, Guillon F, Domont A. Development of a F.E.M. of the human head according to a specific test protocol. In: Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1992; Seattle, WA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:235-253. SAE 922527.

1995

Mendis KK, Stalnaker RL, Advani SH. A constitutive relationship for large deformation finite element modeling of brain tissue. J Biomech Eng. August 1995;117(3):279-285.

1995

King AI, Ruan JS, Zhou C, Hardy WN, Khalil TB. Recent advances in biomechanics of brain injury research: a review. J Neurotrauma. August 1995;12(4):651-658.

1986

Seemann MR, Muzzy WH III, Lustick LS. Comparison of human and Hybrid III head and neck dynamic response. In: Proceedings of the 30th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 27-29, 1986; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:291-311. SAE 861892.

1994

Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. Shear stress distribution in the porcine brain due to rotational impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:133-143. SAE 942214.

2003

Morrison B III, Cater HL, Wang CC-B, Thomas FC, Hung CT, Ateshian GA, Sundstrom LE. A tissue level tolerance criterion for living brain developed with an in vitro model of traumatic mechanical loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:93-105. SAE 2003-22-0006.

2002

Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Leclerc S, Johnston KM. Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clin J Sport Med. November 2002;2(6):331-338.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.

2002

Kleiven S, von Holst H. Consequences of head size following trauma to the human head. J Biomech. 2002;35(2):153-160.

2010

Crisco JJ, Fiore R, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Brolinson PG, Duma S, McAllister TW, Duhaime A-C, Greenwald RM. Frequency and location of head impact exposures in individual collegiate football players. J Athl Train. November–December 2010;45(6):549-559.

2011

Crisco JJ, Wilcox BJ, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Duhaime A-C, Rowson S, Duma SM, Maerlender AC, McAllister TW, Greenwald RM. Head impact exposure in collegiate football players. J Biomech. October 13, 2011;44(15):2673.

1981

Gennarelli TA, Adams JH, Graham DI. Acceleration induced head-injury in the monkey, I: the model, its biomechanical and physiological correlates. Acta Neuropathol Suppl. 1981;7:23-25.

2001

Langburt W, Cohen B, Akhthar N, O’Neill K, Lee J-C. Incidence of concussion in high school football players of Ohio and Pennsylvania. J Child Neurol. February 2001;16(2):83-85.

1997

Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Meaney DF. In vivo thresholds for mechanical injury to the blood-brain barrier. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:277-291. SAE 973335.

1998

Thurman DJ, Branche CM, Sniezek JE. The epidemiology of sports-related traumatic brain injuries in the United States: recent developments. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1998;13(2):1-8.

2001

Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.

2012

Marar M, McIlvain NM, Fields SK, Comstock RD. Epidemiology of concussions among U States high school athletes in 20 sports. Am J Sports Med. April 2012;40(4):747-755.

1972

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Ommaya AK. Pathophysiologic responses to rotational and translational accelerations of the head. In: Proceedings of the 16th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1972; Detroit, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:296-308. SAE 720970.

2004

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.

2000

Bain AC, Meaney DF. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng. December 2000;122(6):615-622.

1953

Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Latimer FR, Haddad BF, Webster JE. Quantitative determination of acceleration and intracranial pressure in experimental head injury: preliminary report. Neurology. 1953;3(6):417-423.

1955

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Observations on the mechanism of brain concussion, contusion, and laceration. Surg Gynecol Obstet. December 1955;101(6):680-690.

2005

Horgan TJ. A Finite Element Model of the Human Head for Use in the Study of Pedestrian Accidents [PhD thesis]. Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin; 2005.

2004

Horgan TJ, Gilchrist MD. Influence of FE model variability in predicting brain motion and intracranial pressure changes in head impact simulations. Int J Crashworthiness. 2004;9(4):401-418.

2003

Pellman EJ. Background on the National Football League's research on concussion in professional football. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):797-798.

2000

Guskiewicz KM, Weaver NL, Padua DA, Garrett WE Jr. Epidemiology of concussion in collegiate and high school football players. Am J Sports Med. September 2000;28(5):643-650.

2007

Schnebel B, Gwin JT, Anderson S, Gatlin R. In vivo study of head impacts in football: a comparison of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I versus high school impacts. Neurosurgery. March 2007;60(3):490-496.

2006

Doorly MC, Gilchrist MD. The use of accident reconstruction for the analysis of traumatic brain injury due to head impacts arising from falls. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2006;9(6):371-377.

2003

Willinger R, Baumgartner D. Human head tolerance limits to specific injury mechanisms. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(6):605-617.

2013

Patton DA, McIntosh AS, Kleiven S. The biomechanical determinants of concussion: finite element simulations to investigate brain tissue deformations during sporting impacts to the unprotected head. J Appl Biomech. December 2013;29(6):721-730.

2002

Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.

1975

Ward CC, Thompson RB. The development of a detailed finite element brain model. In: Proceedings of the 19th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 17-19, 1975; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:641-674. SAE 751163.

1993

Ruan JS, Khalil TB, King AI. Finite element modeling of direct head impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:69-81. SAE 933114.

2011

Forero Rueda MA, Cuia L, Gilchrist MD. Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2011;14(12):1021-1031.

1985

Thibault LE, Gennarelli TA. Biomechanics of diffuse brain injuries. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles (ESV). July 1-4, 1985; Oxford, England.79-85. SAE 856022.

1977

Nahum AM, Smith R, Ward CC. Intracranial pressure dynamics during head impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-366. SAE 770922.

2005

Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Bailes J, McCrea M, Cantu RC, Randolph C, Jordan BD. Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. Neurosurgery. October 2005;57(4):719-724.

1997

Kang H-S, Willinger R, Diaw BM, Chinn B. Validation of a 3D anatomic human head model and replication of head impact in motorcycle accident by finite element modeling. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:329-338. SAE 973339.

2001

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Comparison of brain responses between frontal and lateral impacts by finite element modeling. J Neurotrauma. 2001;18(1):21-30.

2001

Zhang L. Computational Biomechanics of Traumatic Brain Injury: An Investigation of Head Impact Response and American Football Head Injury [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; May 2001.

1995

Willinger R, Taleb L, Kopp C-M. Modal and temporal analysis of head mathematical models. J Neurotrauma. August 1995;12(4):743-754.

2012

Post A, Oeur A, Hoshizaki B, Gilchrist MD. The influence of centric and non‐centric impacts to American football helmets on the correlation between commonly used metrics in brain injury research. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.419-429.

1989

Deng Y-C. Anthropomorphic dummy neck modeling and injury considerations. Accid Anal Prev. February 1989;21(1):85-100.

2012

Post A, Hoshizaki TB. Mechanisms of brain impact injuries and their prediction: a review. Trauma. October 2012;14(4):327-349.

1989

Viano DC, Lau IV, Asbury C, King AI, Begeman P. Biomechanics of the human chest, abdomen, and pelvis in lateral impact. Accid Anal Prev. 1989;21(6):553-574.

2003

Cantu RC, Mueller FO. Brain injury-related fatalities in American football, 1945–1999. Neurosurgery. April 2003;52(4):846-853.

2008

Takhounts EG, Ridella SA, Hasija V, Tannous RE, Campbell JQ, Malone D, Danelson K, Stitzel J, Rowson S, Duma S. Investigation of traumatic brain injuries using the next generation of Simulated Injury Monitor (SIMon) finite element head model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:1-31. SAE 2008-22-0001.

2006

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Withnall C, Shewchenko N, Bir CA, Halstead PD. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—Part 11. Neurosurgery. January 2006;58(1):78-95.

2004

Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.

Year	Entry
2018	Taylor K. The Use of Decoupling Structures in Helmet Liners to Reduce Maximum Principal Brain Tissue Strain for Head Impacts [PhD thesis]. University of Ottawa; 2018.

Year

Entry

2018

Taylor K. The Use of Decoupling Structures in Helmet Liners to Reduce Maximum Principal Brain Tissue Strain for Head Impacts [PhD thesis]. University of Ottawa; 2018.