The biomechanics of running

Novacheck, Tom F.

Affiliations

¹Motion Analysis Laboratory, Gillette Children’s Specialty Healthcare, Uni6ersity of Minnesota, 200 E. Uni6ersity A6e., St. Paul, MN 55101, USA

Abstract

This review article summarizes the current literature regarding the analysis of running gait. It is compared to walking and sprinting. The current state of knowledge is presented as it fits in the context of the history of analysis of movement. The characteristics of the gait cycle and its relationship to potential and kinetic energy interactions are reviewed. The timing of electromyographic activity is provided. Kinematic and kinetic data (including center of pressure measurements, raw force plate data, joint moments, and joint powers) and the impact of changes in velocity on these findings is presented. The status of shoewear literature, alterations in movement strategies, the role of biarticular muscles, and the springlike function of tendons are addressed. This type of information can provide insight into injury mechanisms and training strategies.

Links

DOI: 10.1016/S0966-6362(97)00038-6

PubMed: 10200378

WoS: 000072475800012

History

Received: 1997-08-25

Accepted: 1997-09-22

Cited Works (13)

Year	Entry
1987	Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, Kester RC, Alexander RM. The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature. January 8, 1987;325(6100):147-149.
1987	Munro CF, Miller DI, Fuglevand AJ. Ground reaction forces in running: a reexamination. J Biomech. 1987;20(2):147-155.
1980	Cavanagh PR, Lafortune MA. Ground reaction forces in distance running. J Biomech. 1980;13(5):397-406.
1980	Mann RA, Hagy J. Biomechanics of walking, running, and sprinting. Am J Sports Med. September 1980;8(5):345-350.
1980	Cavanagh PR. The Running Shoe Book. Mountain View, CA: Anderson World; 1980.
1990	McMahon TA. Spring-like properties of muscles and reflexes in running. In: Winters JM, Woo SL-Y, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990:578-590.
1980	Gordon D, Winter DA. Mechanical energy generation, absorption and transfer amongst segments during walking. J Biomech. 1980;13(10):845-854.
1994	Chan CW, Rudins A. Biomechanics during walking and running. Mayo Clin Proc. 1994;69(5):448-461.
1991	Scott SH, Winter DA. Talocrural and talocalcaneal joint kinematics and kinetics during the stance phase of walking. J Biomech. 1991;24(8):743-752.
1983	Winter DA. Moments of force and mechanical power in jogging. J Biomech. 1983;16(1):91-97.
1982	Hennig EM, Cavanagh PR, Albert HT, Macmillan NH. A piezoelectric method of measuring the vertical contact stress beneath the human foot. J Biomed Eng. July 1982;4(3):213-222.
1990	Areblad M, Nigg BM, Ekstrand J, Olsson KO, Ekström H. Three-dimensional measurement of rearfoot motion during running. J Biomech. 1990;23(9):933-940.
1997	Roberts TJ, Marsh RL, Weyand PG, Taylor CR. Muscular force in running turkeys: work, the economy of minimizing. Science. February 21, 1997;275(5303):1113-1115.

Cited By (45)

Year	Entry
2013	Chien S, Dong L, Yi Q, Chen Y, Sherony R, Takahashi H. Joint motion pattern of limb moving mannequins for active safety vehicle tests. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 27-30, 2013; Seoul, South Korea.
2008	Edwards WB, Gillette JC, Thomas JM, Derrick TR. Internal femoral forces and moments during running: implications for stress fracture development. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). December 2008;23(10):1269-1278.
2011	Bentley JA, Ramanathan AK, Arnold GP, Wang W, Abboud RJ. Harmful cleats of football boots: a biomechanical evaluation. Foot Ankle Surg. September 2011;17(3):140-144.
2009	Untaroiu CD, Meissner MU, Crandall JR, Takahashi Y, Okamoto M, Ito O. Crash reconstruction of pedestrian accidents using optimization techniques. Int J Impact Eng. February 2009;36(2):210-219.
2020	Howe LP, Bampouras TM, North JS, Waldron M. Within-session reliability for inter-limb asymmetries in ankle dorsiflexion range of motion measured during the weightbearing lunge test. Int J Sports Phys Ther. February 2020;15(1):64-73.
2019	Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Buck LT, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture of the great ape and human femoral head. J Anat. May 2019;234(5):679-693.
2001	Neptune RR, Kautz SA, Zajac FE. Contributions of the individual ankle plantar flexors to support, forward progression and swing initiation during walking. J Biomech. November 2001;34(11):1387-1398.
2010	Hamner SR, Seth A, Delp SL. Muscle contributions to propulsion and support during running. J Biomech. October 19, 2010;43(14):2709-2716.
2019	Chadefaux D, Gueguen N, Thouze A, Rao G. 3D propagation of the shock-induced vibrations through the whole lower-limb during running. J Biomech. November 11, 2019;96:109343.
2023	Verheul J, Sueda S, Yeo S-H. Muscle inertial contributions to ankle kinetics during the swing phase of running. J Biomech. January 2023;147:111455.
2023	Santos TRT, Araújo PA, Okai-Nóbrega LA, Gomide RdS, Araújo VL, Saucedo F, Vieira MF, Fonseca ST. Vertical stiffness and lower limb inter-joint coordination in older versus younger runners. J Biomech. August 2023;157:111705.
2023	van Gelder LM, Barnes A, Wheat JS, Heller BW. Runners’ responses to a biofeedback intervention aimed to reduce tibial acceleration differ within and between individuals. J Biomech. August 2023;157:111686.
2023	Song K, Hullfish TJ, Scattone Silva R, Silbernagel KG, Baxter JR. Markerless motion capture estimates of lower extremity kinematics and kinetics are comparable to marker-based across 8 movements. J Biomech. August 2023;157:111751.
2008	Riley P, Dicharry J, Franz J, Croce UD, Wilder RP, Kerrigan DC. A kinematics and kinetic comparison of overground and treadmill running. Med Sci Sports Exer. 2008;40(6):1093-1100.
2010	Untaroiu CD, Crandall JR, Takahashi Y, Okamoto M, Ito O, Fredriksson R. Analysis of running child pedestrians impacted by a vehicle using rigid-body models and optimization techniques. Safety Sci. February 2010;48(2):259-267.
2015	Kim M. Ankle Controller Design for Robotic Ankle-Foot Prostheses to Reduce Balance-Related Effort During Walking Using a Dynamic Walking Approach [PhD thesis]. Carnegie Mellon University; December 2015.
2018	Witte KA. Design, Characterization, and Implementation of Lower-Limb Exoskeletons for Performance Augmentation During Walking and Running [PhD thesis]. Carnegie Mellon University; December 2018.
2021	Hidayah R. Modular Cable-Driven Leg Exoskeleton Designs for Movement Adaptation With Visual Feedback [PhD thesis]. Columbia University; 2021.
2009	Edwards WB. Internal Structural Loading of the Lower Extremity During Running: Implications for Skeletal Injury [PhD thesis]. Iowa State University; 2009.
2015	Boyer ER. Rearfoot, Mid/forefoot, and Barefoot Running: Biomechanical Differences Related to Injury [PhD thesis]. Iowa State University; 2015.
2019	Mutunga SM. Trunk, Lumbar and Pelvic Segment Rotations and Coordination Patterns in Runners With and Without a History of Low Back Pain [Master's thesis]. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas; 2019.
2005	Lichtwark G. The Role of Muscle Tendon Unit Elasticity in Real Life Activities [PhD thesis]. London, UK: University of London; 2005.
2019	Sepp LA. Running Biomechanics for People With a Unilateral Transtibial Amputation Using Running-Specific and Daily-Use Prostheses [PhD thesis]. Colorado School of Mines; 2019.
2016	Kendrick DP. The Gravity Loading Countermeasure Skinsuit: A Passive Countermeasure Garment for Preventing Musculoskeletal Deconditioning During Long-Duration Spaceflight [PhD thesis]. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology; June 2016.
2017	Raabe ME. The Effect of Core Stability on Running Mechanics in Novice Runners [PhD thesis]. The Ohio State University; 2017.
2009	Lee SSM. Musculoskeletal Architecture and Plantarflexor Muscle Function in the Human Ankle Joint [PhD thesis]. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University; December 2009.
2020	Kanko RM. Validation of a Markerless Motion Capture System for Human Movement Analysis [Master's thesis]. Queen's University; August 2020.
2021	Wheatley MGA. Why Do We Have Patellae? An Investigation of Patellofemoral Function and Dysfunction [PhD thesis]. Queen's University; November 2021.
2012	Arnold EM. Computer Modeling of Human Lower Limb Muscles to Study How Muscle Fiber Lengths and Velocities Affect Muscle Force Generation During Walking and Running [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; July 2012.
2012	Hamner SR. Muscle Contributions to Propulsion and Support Over a Range of Running Speeds [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; August 2012.
2018	Yong JR. Biomechanical Differences Between Rearfoot Striking and Forefoot Striking in Running [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 2018.
2021	Bryan GM. Development of Effective Hip-Knee-Ankle Exoskeleton Assistance for Different Walking Conditions [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; June 2021.
2021	Franks PW. Designing Multi-Joint Exoskeleton Assistance [PhD thesis]. Université Laval; 2021.
2022	Bianco NA. Simulating Exoskeletons to Assist Walking: Tools and Applications [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 2022.
2005	Dierks TA. Kinematics and Joint Coupling in Runners With Patellofemoral Pain During a Prolonged Run [PhD thesis]. University of Delaware; F 2005.
2017	Riddick RC. Energetics of Human Running: A Mechanistic Perspective [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2017.
2020	Burns GT. Runners as Biomechanical Systems: New Approaches With the Spring-Mass Model [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2020.
2016	Lippa NM. Energy Management Mechanisms Employed At the Human-Material Interface of Traditional and Minimalist Shod Running [PhD thesis]. Hattiesburg, MS: University of Southern Mississippi; May 2016.
2004	Sasaki K. Analysis of Potential Muscular Determinants of the Preferred Walk-Run Transition Speed in Human Gait [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; August 2004.
2010	Bohnsack NK. Body Dynamics and Muscle Activity During Chi Running [Master's thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; December 2010.
2014	Bohnsack NK. Adaptability of Stride-to-Stride Control of Stepping Movements in Human Walking and Running [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; May 2014.
2019	Perez MT. A Computational Assessment of Lisfranc Injuries and Their Surgical Repairs [Master's thesis]. Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University; 2019.
2020	Hughes-Oliver C. The Impact of Race and Related Factors on Movement Mechanics [PhD thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; March 26, 2020.
2022	Luftglass A. Investigating the Effects of Shoe Upper Panel Stiffness on Biomechanics [Master's thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; May 5, 2022.
2009	Silder A. Effects of Prior Hamstring Injury on Morphology, Function, and Mechanics [PhD thesis]. University of Wisconsin – Madison; 2009.