The biomechanics of running

Novacheck, Tom F.

Affiliations

¹Motion Analysis Laboratory, Gillette Children’s Specialty Healthcare, Uni6ersity of Minnesota, 200 E. Uni6ersity A6e., St. Paul, MN 55101, USA

Abstract

This review article summarizes the current literature regarding the analysis of running gait. It is compared to walking and sprinting. The current state of knowledge is presented as it fits in the context of the history of analysis of movement. The characteristics of the gait cycle and its relationship to potential and kinetic energy interactions are reviewed. The timing of electromyographic activity is provided. Kinematic and kinetic data (including center of pressure measurements, raw force plate data, joint moments, and joint powers) and the impact of changes in velocity on these findings is presented. The status of shoewear literature, alterations in movement strategies, the role of biarticular muscles, and the springlike function of tendons are addressed. This type of information can provide insight into injury mechanisms and training strategies.

Links

DOI: 10.1016/S0966-6362(97)00038-6

PubMed: 10200378

WoS: 000072475800012

History

Received: 1997-08-25

Accepted: 1997-09-22

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2013	Chien S, Dong L, Yi Q, Chen Y, Sherony R, Takahashi H. Joint motion pattern of limb moving mannequins for active safety vehicle tests. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). May 27-30, 2013; Seoul, South Korea.
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2011	Bentley JA, Ramanathan AK, Arnold GP, Wang W, Abboud RJ. Harmful cleats of football boots: a biomechanical evaluation. Foot Ankle Surg. September 2011;17(3):140-144.
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2020	Howe LP, Bampouras TM, North JS, Waldron M. Within-session reliability for inter-limb asymmetries in ankle dorsiflexion range of motion measured during the weightbearing lunge test. Int J Sports Phys Ther. February 2020;15(1):64-73.
2019	Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Buck LT, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture of the great ape and human femoral head. J Anat. May 2019;234(5):679-693.
2001	Neptune RR, Kautz SA, Zajac FE. Contributions of the individual ankle plantar flexors to support, forward progression and swing initiation during walking. J Biomech. November 2001;34(11):1387-1398.
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2019	Chadefaux D, Gueguen N, Thouze A, Rao G. 3D propagation of the shock-induced vibrations through the whole lower-limb during running. J Biomech. November 11, 2019;96:109343.
2023	Verheul J, Sueda S, Yeo S-H. Muscle inertial contributions to ankle kinetics during the swing phase of running. J Biomech. January 2023;147:111455.
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2023	van Gelder LM, Barnes A, Wheat JS, Heller BW. Runners’ responses to a biofeedback intervention aimed to reduce tibial acceleration differ within and between individuals. J Biomech. August 2023;157:111686.
2023	Song K, Hullfish TJ, Scattone Silva R, Silbernagel KG, Baxter JR. Markerless motion capture estimates of lower extremity kinematics and kinetics are comparable to marker-based across 8 movements. J Biomech. August 2023;157:111751.
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2021	Hidayah R. Modular Cable-Driven Leg Exoskeleton Designs for Movement Adaptation With Visual Feedback [PhD thesis]. Columbia University; 2021.
2009	Edwards WB. Internal Structural Loading of the Lower Extremity During Running: Implications for Skeletal Injury [PhD thesis]. Iowa State University; 2009.
2015	Boyer ER. Rearfoot, Mid/forefoot, and Barefoot Running: Biomechanical Differences Related to Injury [PhD thesis]. Iowa State University; 2015.
2019	Mutunga SM. Trunk, Lumbar and Pelvic Segment Rotations and Coordination Patterns in Runners With and Without a History of Low Back Pain [Master's thesis]. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas; 2019.
2005	Lichtwark G. The Role of Muscle Tendon Unit Elasticity in Real Life Activities [PhD thesis]. London, UK: University of London; 2005.
2019	Sepp LA. Running Biomechanics for People With a Unilateral Transtibial Amputation Using Running-Specific and Daily-Use Prostheses [PhD thesis]. Colorado School of Mines; 2019.
2016	Kendrick DP. The Gravity Loading Countermeasure Skinsuit: A Passive Countermeasure Garment for Preventing Musculoskeletal Deconditioning During Long-Duration Spaceflight [PhD thesis]. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology; June 2016.
2017	Raabe ME. The Effect of Core Stability on Running Mechanics in Novice Runners [PhD thesis]. The Ohio State University; 2017.
2009	Lee SSM. Musculoskeletal Architecture and Plantarflexor Muscle Function in the Human Ankle Joint [PhD thesis]. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University; December 2009.
2020	Kanko RM. Validation of a Markerless Motion Capture System for Human Movement Analysis [Master's thesis]. Queen's University; August 2020.
2021	Wheatley MGA. Why Do We Have Patellae? An Investigation of Patellofemoral Function and Dysfunction [PhD thesis]. Queen's University; November 2021.
2012	Arnold EM. Computer Modeling of Human Lower Limb Muscles to Study How Muscle Fiber Lengths and Velocities Affect Muscle Force Generation During Walking and Running [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; July 2012.
2012	Hamner SR. Muscle Contributions to Propulsion and Support Over a Range of Running Speeds [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; August 2012.
2018	Yong JR. Biomechanical Differences Between Rearfoot Striking and Forefoot Striking in Running [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 2018.
2022	Bianco NA. Simulating Exoskeletons to Assist Walking: Tools and Applications [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 2022.
2005	Dierks TA. Kinematics and Joint Coupling in Runners With Patellofemoral Pain During a Prolonged Run [PhD thesis]. University of Delaware; F 2005.
2017	Riddick RC. Energetics of Human Running: A Mechanistic Perspective [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2017.
2020	Burns GT. Runners as Biomechanical Systems: New Approaches With the Spring-Mass Model [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2020.
2016	Lippa NM. Energy Management Mechanisms Employed At the Human-Material Interface of Traditional and Minimalist Shod Running [PhD thesis]. Hattiesburg, MS: University of Southern Mississippi; May 2016.
2004	Sasaki K. Analysis of Potential Muscular Determinants of the Preferred Walk-Run Transition Speed in Human Gait [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; August 2004.
2010	Bohnsack NK. Body Dynamics and Muscle Activity During Chi Running [Master's thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; December 2010.
2014	Bohnsack NK. Adaptability of Stride-to-Stride Control of Stepping Movements in Human Walking and Running [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; May 2014.
2019	Perez MT. A Computational Assessment of Lisfranc Injuries and Their Surgical Repairs [Master's thesis]. Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University; 2019.
2020	Hughes-Oliver C. The Impact of Race and Related Factors on Movement Mechanics [PhD thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; March 26, 2020.
2022	Luftglass A. Investigating the Effects of Shoe Upper Panel Stiffness on Biomechanics [Master's thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; May 5, 2022.
2009	Silder A. Effects of Prior Hamstring Injury on Morphology, Function, and Mechanics [PhD thesis]. University of Wisconsin – Madison; 2009.