Computational Analysis of in Vivo Brain Trauma

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) continues to be a serious societal problem affecting at least 1.4 million Americans each year. Despite the significance of this public health problem and long term efforts of brain trauma research, the precise mechanisms and tolerances of brain injury have not yet been fully established. Currently, animal TBI experimental models are extensively used to study neurological responses which could not be investigated with cadavers. However, the intracranial mechanical responses, which have been hypothesized to govern brain injuries, are hard to observe directly, especially in vivo.

The ultimate goal of this study is to further investigate brain injury mechanism and tolerance at tissue level. To achieve this goal, first, a 3-D anatomically detailed high resolution finite element (FE) model of the rat brain was developed and validated against in vivo measured brain displacement data induced by dynamic cortical impact.

The FE rat brain model was then used to investigate rat brain contusion mechanism and associated FE model-specific injury threshold in the controlled cortical impact (CCI) model. The intracranial pressure was found to be uncorrelated with contusion induced by CCI. A threshold of 26.5% maximum principal strain (MPS) correlates with experimentally measured contusion volume at 24 hours post injury while a higher MPS threshold (30%) was required to predict contusion volume measured at 7- to 14-day post-injury.

The regional intracranial MPS’s predicted by the FE model were found to correlate well with in vivo observed percentage of cell loss as a result of CCI. Therefore, a new measure entitled cumulative strain damage percentage measurement (CSDPM), which accounts for the strain magnitude, the corresponding percentage of cell loss, and the volume ratio, is proposed.

The intracranial responses in an experimental model designed to induce axonal injury characterized as neurofilament compaction (NFC) was computationally analyzed. Results showed that a peak MPS of above 0.121 or compressive strain of above 0.222 correlate with NFC injury. However, the shear strain and intracranial pressure did not correlate with of NFC injury.

Finally, systematic analyses based on computational design of experiments for CCI were performed. The effect of external impact parameters on internal responses, including the contusion volume and CSDPM score, were described. The numerical rat brain model could be used to computationally design more refined experimental models of neurotrauma in the future

Year	Entry
1998	Miller RT, Margulies SS, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Chen X, Smith DH, Meaney DF. Finite element modeling approaches for predicting injury in an experimental model of severe diffuse axonal injury. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:155-166. SAE 983154.
1989	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tipperman R, Tomei G, Sergot R, Brown M, Maxwell WL, Graham DI, Adams JH, Irvine A, Gennarelli LM, Duhaime AC, Boock R, Greenberg J. Axonal injury in the optic nerve: a model simulating diffuse axonal injury in the brain. J Neurosurg. August 1989;71(2):244-253.
2006	Cater HL, Sundstrom LE, Morrison B III. Temporal development of hippocampal cell death is dependent on tissue strain but not strain rate. J Biomech. 2006;39(16):2810-2818.
1974	Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness: correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain. December 1974;97(4):633-654.
1988	Lighthall JW. Controlled cortical impact: a new experimental brain injury model. J Neurotrauma. 1988;5(1):1-15.
1943	Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.
1993	Galbraith JA, Thibault LE, Matteson DR. Mechanical and electrical responses of the squid giant axon to simple elongation. J Biomech Eng. February 1993;115(1):13-22.
1994	Ross DT, Meaney DF, Sabol MK, Smith DH, Gennarelli TA. Distribution of forebrain diffuse axonal injury following inertial closed head injury in miniature swine. Exp Neurol. April 1994;126(2):291-299.
1987	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tomei G, Wiser R, Graham DI, Adams J. Directional dependence of axonal brain injury due to centroidal and non-centroidal acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:49-53. SAE 872197.
1993	Ruan JS, Khalil TB, King AI. Finite element modeling of direct head impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:69-81. SAE 933114.
1971	Wood JL. Dynamic response of human cranial bone. J Biomech. January 1971;4(1):1-12.
2005	Franklyn M, Fildes B, Zhang L, Yang K, Sparke L. Analysis of finite element models for head injury investigation: reconstruction of four real-world impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:1-32. SAE 2005-22-0001.
1966	Gurdjian ES, Roberts VL, Thomas LM. Tolerance curves of acceleration and intracrantal pressure and protective index in experimental head injury. J Trauma. September 1966;6(5):600-604.
2003	Zhang L, Ramesh D, Yang KH, King AI. Effectiveness of the football helmet assessed by finite element modeling and impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.27-38.
2003	Anderson RWG, Brown CJ, Blumbergs PC, McLean AJ, Jones NR. Impact mechanics and axonal injury in a sheep model. J Neurotrauma. October 2003;20(10):961-974.
1992	Trosseille X, Tarriére C, Lavaste F, Guillon F, Domont A. Development of a F.E.M. of the human head according to a specific test protocol. In: Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1992; Seattle, WA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:235-253. SAE 922527.
1994	Meaney DF, Ross DT, Winkelstein BA, Brasko J, Goldstein D, Bilston LB, Thibault LE, Gennarelli TA. Modification of the cortical impact model to produce axonal injury in the rat cerebral cortex. J Neurotrauma. October 1994;11(5):599-612.
2007	Elkin BS, Morrison B. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:127-138. SAE 2007-22-0005.
2007	Fijalkowski RJ, Stemper BD, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Crowe MJ, Gennarelli TA. New rat model for diffuse brain injury using coronal plane angular acceleration. J Neurotrauma. August 2007;24(8):1387-1398.
1978	Abel JM, Gennarelli TA, Segawa H. Incidence and severity of cerebral concussion in the rhesus monkey following sagittal plane angular acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:35-53. SAE 780886.
2003	Gefen A, Gefen N, Zhu Q, Raghupathi R, Margulies SS. Age-dependent changes in material properties of the brain and braincase of the rat. J Neurotrauma. November 2003;20(11):1163-1177.
1980	Ward C, Chan M, Nahum A. Intracranial pressure: a brain injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:163-185. SAE 801304.
2002	Kleiven S. Finite Element Modeling of the Human Head [PhD thesis]. Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Institute of Technology; 2002.
2005	Viano DC, Casson IR, Pellman EJ, Zhang L, King AI, Yang KH. Concussion in professional football: brain responses by finite element analysis: part 9. Neurosurgery. November 2005;57(5):891-916.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
1994	Marmarou A, Foda MAA-E, van den Brink W, Campbell J, Kita H, Demetriadou K. A new model of diffuse brain injury in rats, I: pathophysiology and biomechanics. J Neurosurg. February 1994;80(2):291-300.
2006	Mao H, Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Application of a finite element model of the brain to study traumatic brain injury mechanisms in the rat. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:583-600. SAE 2006-22-0022.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.
1995	Meaney DF, Smith DH, Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Miller RT, Ross DT, Gennarelli TA. Biomechanical analysis of experimental diffuse axonal injury. J Neurotrauma. November 1995;12(4):689-694.
1995	Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. A new model comparing impact responses of the homogeneous and inhomogeneous human brain. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:121-137. SAE 952714.
1994	Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. Shear stress distribution in the porcine brain due to rotational impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:133-143. SAE 942214.
2006	Singh A, Lu Y, Chen C, Kallakuri S, Cavanaugh JM. A new model of traumatic axonal injury to determine the effects of strain and displacement rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:601-623. SAE 2006-22-0023.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Spielman GM, Langfitt TW, Gildenberg PL, Harrington T, Jane JA, Marshall LF, Miller JD, Pitts LH. Influence of the type of intracranial lesion on outcome from severe head injury: a multicenter study using a new classification system. J Neurosurg. January 1982;56(1):26-32.
1997	Maxwell WL, Povlishock JT, Graham DL. A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: a review. J Neurotrauma. January 1997;14(7):419-440.
1997	Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Meaney DF. In vivo thresholds for mechanical injury to the blood-brain barrier. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:277-291. SAE 973335.
2006	Fredriksson R, Boström O, Zhang L, Yang K. Influence of pop-up hood systems on brain injuries for vulnerable road users. In: Proceedings of the 2006 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2006; Madrid, Spain.253-264.
2001	Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.
2000	Anderson RWG. A Study on the Biomechanics of Axonal Injury [PhD thesis]. Adelaide, Australia: University of Adelaide; 2000.
1979	Smith RW. The response of unembalmed cadaveric and living cerebral vessels to graded injury: a pilot study. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1979; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:545-560. SAE 791021.
2004	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.
1989	McIntosh TK, Vink R, Noble L, Yamakami I, Fernyak S, Soares H, Faden AL. Traumatic brain injury in the rat: characterization of a lateral fluid-percussion model. Neuroscience. 1989;28(1):233-244.
1999	Miller RT, Smith DH, Chen X, Xu B-N, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Meaney DF. Comparing experimental data to traumatic brain injury finite element models. In: Proceedings of the 43rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 25-27, 1999; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:303-311. SAE 99SC20.
1997	Arbogast KB, Margulies SS. Regional differences in mechanical properties of the porcine central nervous system. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:293-300. SAE 973336.
2005	Horgan TJ. A Finite Element Model of the Human Head for Use in the Study of Pedestrian Accidents [PhD thesis]. Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin; 2005.
2007	Hardy WN. Response of the Human Cadaver Head to Impact [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; December 2007.
2001	Gutierrez E, Huang Y, Haglid K, Bao F, Hansson H-A, Hamberger A, Viano D. A new model for diffuse brain injury by rotational acceleration, I: model, gross appearance, and astrocytosis. J Neurotrauma. March 2001;18(3):247-257.
1991	Dixon CE, Clifton GL, Lighthall JW, Yaghmai AA, Hayes RL. A controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury in the rat. J Neurosci Meth. October 1991;39(3):253-262.
1987	Dixon CE, Lyeth BG, Povlishock JT, Findling RL, Hamm RJ, Marmarou A, Young HF, Hayes RL. A fluid percussion model of experimental brain injury in the rat. J Neurosurg. July 1987;67(1):110-119.
2006	Jin X, Lee JB, Leung LY, Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanical response of the bovine pia-arachnoid complex to tensile loading at varying strain rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:637-649. SAE 2006-22-0025.
2001	Zhang L, Yang KH, Dwarampudi R, Omori K, Li T, Chang K, Hardy WN, Khalil TB, King AI. Recent advances in brain injury research: a new human head model development and validation. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:369-394. SAE 2001-22-0017.
2002	Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.
1977	Nahum AM, Smith R, Ward CC. Intracranial pressure dynamics during head impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-366. SAE 770922.
1987	Lee M-C, Melvin JW, Ueno K. Finite element analysis of traumatic subdural hematoma. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:67-77. SAE 872201.
1970	McElhaney JH, Fogle JL, Melvin JW, Haynes RR, Roberts VL, Alem NM. Mechanical properties of cranial bone. J Biomech. 1970;3(5):495-511.
1995	Ueno K, Melvin JW, Li L, Lighthall JW. Development of tissue level brain injury criteria by finite element analysis. J Neurotrauma. August 1995;12(4):695-706.
2001	Zhang L. Computational Biomechanics of Traumatic Brain Injury: An Investigation of Head Impact Response and American Football Head Injury [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; May 2001.
1999	Bain AC, Meaney DF. Thresholds for mechanical injury to the in vivo white matter. In: Proceedings of the 43rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 25-27, 1999; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:295-302. SAE 99SC19.
1995	Zhou C. Finite Element Modeling of Impact Response of an Inhomogeneous Brain [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; 1995.
1994	Foda MAA-E, Marmarou A. A new model of diffuse brain injury in rats, II: morphological characterization. J Neurosurg. February 1994;80(2):301-313.
2003	Morrison B III, Cater HL, Wang CC-B, Thomas FC, Hung CT, Ateshian GA, Sundstrom LE. A tissue level tolerance criterion for living brain developed with an in vitro model of traumatic mechanical loading. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:93-105. SAE 2003-22-0006.
2003	Takhounts EG, Eppinger RH, Campbell JQ, Tannous RE, Power ED, Shook LS. On the development of the SIMon finite element head model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2003;47:107-133. SAE 2003-22-0007.
1994	Ruan JS. Impact Biomechanics of Head Injury by Mathematical Modeling [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; 1994.
2008	Takhounts EG, Ridella SA, Hasija V, Tannous RE, Campbell JQ, Malone D, Danelson K, Stitzel J, Rowson S, Duma S. Investigation of traumatic brain injuries using the next generation of Simulated Injury Monitor (SIMon) finite element head model. Stapp Car Crash J. 2008;52:1-31. SAE 2008-22-0001.
1990	Margulies SS, Thibault LE, Gennarelli TA. Physical model simulations of brain injury in the primate. J Biomech. 1990;23(8):823-836.
1999	Smith DH, Wolf JA, Lusardi TA, Lee VM-Y, Meaney DF. High tolerance and delayed elastic response of cultured axons to dynamic stretch injury. J Neurosci. June 1, 1999;19(11):4263-4269.

Year

Entry

1998

Miller RT, Margulies SS, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Chen X, Smith DH, Meaney DF. Finite element modeling approaches for predicting injury in an experimental model of severe diffuse axonal injury. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1998; Tempa, AZ. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:155-166. SAE 983154.

1989

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tipperman R, Tomei G, Sergot R, Brown M, Maxwell WL, Graham DI, Adams JH, Irvine A, Gennarelli LM, Duhaime AC, Boock R, Greenberg J. Axonal injury in the optic nerve: a model simulating diffuse axonal injury in the brain. J Neurosurg. August 1989;71(2):244-253.

2006

Cater HL, Sundstrom LE, Morrison B III. Temporal development of hippocampal cell death is dependent on tissue strain but not strain rate. J Biomech. 2006;39(16):2810-2818.

1974

Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness: correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain. December 1974;97(4):633-654.

1988

Lighthall JW. Controlled cortical impact: a new experimental brain injury model. J Neurotrauma. 1988;5(1):1-15.

1943

Holbourn AHS. Mechanics of head injuries. Lancet. October 9, 1943;242(6267):438-441.

1993

Galbraith JA, Thibault LE, Matteson DR. Mechanical and electrical responses of the squid giant axon to simple elongation. J Biomech Eng. February 1993;115(1):13-22.

1994

Ross DT, Meaney DF, Sabol MK, Smith DH, Gennarelli TA. Distribution of forebrain diffuse axonal injury following inertial closed head injury in miniature swine. Exp Neurol. April 1994;126(2):291-299.

1987

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tomei G, Wiser R, Graham DI, Adams J. Directional dependence of axonal brain injury due to centroidal and non-centroidal acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:49-53. SAE 872197.

1993

Ruan JS, Khalil TB, King AI. Finite element modeling of direct head impact. In: Proceedings of the 37th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 7-8, 1993; San Antonio, TX. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:69-81. SAE 933114.

1971

Wood JL. Dynamic response of human cranial bone. J Biomech. January 1971;4(1):1-12.

2005

Franklyn M, Fildes B, Zhang L, Yang K, Sparke L. Analysis of finite element models for head injury investigation: reconstruction of four real-world impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2005;49:1-32. SAE 2005-22-0001.

1966

Gurdjian ES, Roberts VL, Thomas LM. Tolerance curves of acceleration and intracrantal pressure and protective index in experimental head injury. J Trauma. September 1966;6(5):600-604.

2003

Zhang L, Ramesh D, Yang KH, King AI. Effectiveness of the football helmet assessed by finite element modeling and impact testing. In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.27-38.

2003

Anderson RWG, Brown CJ, Blumbergs PC, McLean AJ, Jones NR. Impact mechanics and axonal injury in a sheep model. J Neurotrauma. October 2003;20(10):961-974.

1992

Trosseille X, Tarriére C, Lavaste F, Guillon F, Domont A. Development of a F.E.M. of the human head according to a specific test protocol. In: Proceedings of the 36th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 2-4, 1992; Seattle, WA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:235-253. SAE 922527.

1994

Meaney DF, Ross DT, Winkelstein BA, Brasko J, Goldstein D, Bilston LB, Thibault LE, Gennarelli TA. Modification of the cortical impact model to produce axonal injury in the rat cerebral cortex. J Neurotrauma. October 1994;11(5):599-612.

2007

Elkin BS, Morrison B. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:127-138. SAE 2007-22-0005.

2007

Fijalkowski RJ, Stemper BD, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Crowe MJ, Gennarelli TA. New rat model for diffuse brain injury using coronal plane angular acceleration. J Neurotrauma. August 2007;24(8):1387-1398.

1978

Abel JM, Gennarelli TA, Segawa H. Incidence and severity of cerebral concussion in the rhesus monkey following sagittal plane angular acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 24-26, 1978; Ann Arobor, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:35-53. SAE 780886.

2003

Gefen A, Gefen N, Zhu Q, Raghupathi R, Margulies SS. Age-dependent changes in material properties of the brain and braincase of the rat. J Neurotrauma. November 2003;20(11):1163-1177.

1980

Ward C, Chan M, Nahum A. Intracranial pressure: a brain injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 15-17, 1980; Troy, MI. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:163-185. SAE 801304.

2002

Kleiven S. Finite Element Modeling of the Human Head [PhD thesis]. Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Institute of Technology; 2002.

2005

Viano DC, Casson IR, Pellman EJ, Zhang L, King AI, Yang KH. Concussion in professional football: brain responses by finite element analysis: part 9. Neurosurgery. November 2005;57(5):891-916.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

1994

Marmarou A, Foda MAA-E, van den Brink W, Campbell J, Kita H, Demetriadou K. A new model of diffuse brain injury in rats, I: pathophysiology and biomechanics. J Neurosurg. February 1994;80(2):291-300.

2006

Mao H, Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Application of a finite element model of the brain to study traumatic brain injury mechanisms in the rat. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:583-600. SAE 2006-22-0022.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE. Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma. J Trauma. 1982;22(8):680-686.

1995

Meaney DF, Smith DH, Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Miller RT, Ross DT, Gennarelli TA. Biomechanical analysis of experimental diffuse axonal injury. J Neurotrauma. November 1995;12(4):689-694.

1995

Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. A new model comparing impact responses of the homogeneous and inhomogeneous human brain. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 8-10, 1995; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:121-137. SAE 952714.

1994

Zhou C, Khalil TB, King AI. Shear stress distribution in the porcine brain due to rotational impact. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 31–November 2, 1994; Fort Lauderdale, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:133-143. SAE 942214.

2006

Singh A, Lu Y, Chen C, Kallakuri S, Cavanaugh JM. A new model of traumatic axonal injury to determine the effects of strain and displacement rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:601-623. SAE 2006-22-0023.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Spielman GM, Langfitt TW, Gildenberg PL, Harrington T, Jane JA, Marshall LF, Miller JD, Pitts LH. Influence of the type of intracranial lesion on outcome from severe head injury: a multicenter study using a new classification system. J Neurosurg. January 1982;56(1):26-32.

1997

Maxwell WL, Povlishock JT, Graham DL. A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: a review. J Neurotrauma. January 1997;14(7):419-440.

1997

Shreiber DI, Bain AC, Meaney DF. In vivo thresholds for mechanical injury to the blood-brain barrier. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:277-291. SAE 973335.

2006

Fredriksson R, Boström O, Zhang L, Yang K. Influence of pop-up hood systems on brain injuries for vulnerable road users. In: Proceedings of the 2006 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 20-22, 2006; Madrid, Spain.253-264.

2001

Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.

2000

Anderson RWG. A Study on the Biomechanics of Axonal Injury [PhD thesis]. Adelaide, Australia: University of Adelaide; 2000.

1979

Smith RW. The response of unembalmed cadaveric and living cerebral vessels to graded injury: a pilot study. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 17-19, 1979; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:545-560. SAE 791021.

2004

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.

1989

McIntosh TK, Vink R, Noble L, Yamakami I, Fernyak S, Soares H, Faden AL. Traumatic brain injury in the rat: characterization of a lateral fluid-percussion model. Neuroscience. 1989;28(1):233-244.

1999

Miller RT, Smith DH, Chen X, Xu B-N, Leoni M, Nonaka M, Meaney DF. Comparing experimental data to traumatic brain injury finite element models. In: Proceedings of the 43rd Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 25-27, 1999; San Diego, CA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:303-311. SAE 99SC20.

1997

Arbogast KB, Margulies SS. Regional differences in mechanical properties of the porcine central nervous system. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 13-14, 1997; Lake Buena Vista, FL. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:293-300. SAE 973336.

2005

Horgan TJ. A Finite Element Model of the Human Head for Use in the Study of Pedestrian Accidents [PhD thesis]. Dublin, Ireland: University College Dublin; 2005.

2007

Hardy WN. Response of the Human Cadaver Head to Impact [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; December 2007.

2001

Gutierrez E, Huang Y, Haglid K, Bao F, Hansson H-A, Hamberger A, Viano D. A new model for diffuse brain injury by rotational acceleration, I: model, gross appearance, and astrocytosis. J Neurotrauma. March 2001;18(3):247-257.

1991

Dixon CE, Clifton GL, Lighthall JW, Yaghmai AA, Hayes RL. A controlled cortical impact model of traumatic brain injury in the rat. J Neurosci Meth. October 1991;39(3):253-262.

1987

Dixon CE, Lyeth BG, Povlishock JT, Findling RL, Hamm RJ, Marmarou A, Young HF, Hayes RL. A fluid percussion model of experimental brain injury in the rat. J Neurosurg. July 1987;67(1):110-119.

2006

Jin X, Lee JB, Leung LY, Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanical response of the bovine pia-arachnoid complex to tensile loading at varying strain rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:637-649. SAE 2006-22-0025.

2001

Zhang L, Yang KH, Dwarampudi R, Omori K, Li T, Chang K, Hardy WN, Khalil TB, King AI. Recent advances in brain injury research: a new human head model development and validation. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:369-394. SAE 2001-22-0017.

2002

Prange MT, Margulies SS. Regional, directional, and age-dependent properties of the brain undergoing large deformation. J Biomech Eng. 2002;124(2):244-252.

1977

Nahum AM, Smith R, Ward CC. Intracranial pressure dynamics during head impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp Car Crash Conference. October 19-21, 1977; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:339-366. SAE 770922.

1987

Lee M-C, Melvin JW, Ueno K. Finite element analysis of traumatic subdural hematoma. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:67-77. SAE 872201.

1970

McElhaney JH, Fogle JL, Melvin JW, Haynes RR, Roberts VL, Alem NM. Mechanical properties of cranial bone. J Biomech. 1970;3(5):495-511.

1995

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Year	Entry
2010	Mathur V. Computational Modeling of Controlled Cortical Impact in a Mouse [Master's thesis]. University of Utah; December 2010.
2015	Kim H. Characterization of Brain Surface Strains During Controlled Cortical Impact [Master's thesis]. University of Utah; May 2015.
2010	Lockhart PA. Primary Blast Injury of the Head: Numerical Prediction and Evaluation of Protection [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2010.
2015	Singh D. Investigation of Primary Blast Injury and Protection Using Sagittal and Transverse Finite Element Head Models [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2015.
2020	Zhou R. Development of Rat Head Finite Element Model and Tissue Level Biomechanical Threshold for Traumatic Axonal Injury [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; May 2020.

Year

Entry

2010

Mathur V. Computational Modeling of Controlled Cortical Impact in a Mouse [Master's thesis]. University of Utah; December 2010.

2015

Kim H. Characterization of Brain Surface Strains During Controlled Cortical Impact [Master's thesis]. University of Utah; May 2015.

2010

Lockhart PA. Primary Blast Injury of the Head: Numerical Prediction and Evaluation of Protection [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2010.

2015

Singh D. Investigation of Primary Blast Injury and Protection Using Sagittal and Transverse Finite Element Head Models [Master's thesis]. University of Waterloo; 2015.

2020

Zhou R. Development of Rat Head Finite Element Model and Tissue Level Biomechanical Threshold for Traumatic Axonal Injury [PhD thesis]. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University; May 2020.