Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running

Cavagna, G. A.; Kaneko, M.

Affiliations

¹Istituto di Fisiologia Umana dell'Università di Milano and Centro di Studio per la Fisiologia del Lavoro Muscolare del C.N.R., 20133 Milano, Italy

²Present address: Laboratory of Exercise Physiology, Osaka College of Physical Education, Ibaraki, Osaka, Japan

Abstract

The mechanical power spent to accelerate the limbs relative to the trunk in level walking and running, W_int, has been measured at various ‘constant’ speeds (3-33 km/hr) with the cinematographic procedure used by Fenn (1930a) at high speeds of running.
W_int increases approximately as the square of the speed of walking and running. For a given speed W_int is greater in walking than in running.
In walking above 3 km/hr, W_int is greater than the power spent to accelerate and lift the centre of mass of the body at each step, W_ext (measured by Cavagna, Thys & Zamboni, 1976b). In running Ẇ_int < W_ext up to about 20 km/hr, whereas at higher speeds W_int > W_ext.
The total work done by the muscles was calculated as W_tot = ǀW_intǀ + ǀW_extǀ. Except that at the highest speeds of walking, the total work done per unit distance W_tot/km is greater in running than in walking.
The efficiency of positive work was measured from the ratio W_tot/Net energy expenditure: this is greater than 0·25 indicating that both in walking and in running the muscles utilize, during shortening, some energy stored during a previous phase of negative work (stretching).
In walking the efficiency reaches a maximum (0·35-0·40) at intermediate speeds, as may be expected from the properties of the contractile component of muscle. In running the efficiency increases steadily with speed (from 0·45 to 0·70-0·80) suggesting that positive work derives mainly from the passive recoil of muscle elastic elements and to a lesser extent from the active shortening of the contractile machinery. These findings are consistent with the different mechanics of the two exercises.

Links

DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.1977.sp011866

PubMed: 874922

WoS: A1977DK65400010

History

Received: 1976-10-18

Cited Works (1)

Year	Entry
1976	Cappozzo A, Figura F, Marchetti M, Pedotti A. The interplay of muscular and external forces in human ambulation. J Biomech. 1976;9(1):35-43.

Cited By (28)

Year	Entry
1990	Mungiole M, Winters JM. Overview: influence of muscle on cyclic and propulsive movements involving the lower limb. In: Winters JM, Woo SL-Y, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990:chap 35.
1990	Hof AL. Effects of muscle elasticity in walking and running. In: Winters JM, Woo SL-Y, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990:591-607.
1990	Hull ML, Hawkins DA. Analysis of muscular work in multisegmental movements: application to cycling. In: Winters JM, Woo SL-Y, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990:621-638.
1991	Winter DA. The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological. 2nd ed. Waterloo, ON: University of Waterloo Press; 1991.
1977	Cavagna GA, Heglund NC, Taylor CR. Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. November 1977;233(5):R243-R261.
1980	Onyshko S, Winter DA. A mathematical model for the dynamics of human locomotion. J Biomech. 1980;13(4):361-368.
1983	Winter DA. Moments of force and mechanical power in jogging. J Biomech. 1983;16(1):91-97.
1988	Winters JM, Stark L. Estimated mechanical properties of synergistic muscles involved in movements of a variety of human joints. J Biomech. 1988;21(12):1027-1041.
2023	Curtin NA, Barclay CJ. The energetics of muscle contractions resembling in vivo performance. J Biomech. July 2023;156:111665.
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2022	Butterfield JK. The Energetics of Split-Belt Walking [PhD thesis]. Stanford University; December 2022.
2014	Killick AD. Metabolically Optimal Gait Transitions in Cross-Country Skate Skiing [Master's thesis]. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary; September 2014.
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2018	Ebrahimi A. The Development and Application of a Framework for Exploring the Energetics of Gait Strategy Adaptations [PhD thesis]. University of Delaware; 2018.
2012	Zelik KE. Passive Energy-Saving Mechanisms in Human Locomotion [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2012.
2017	Riddick RC. Energetics of Human Running: A Mechanistic Perspective [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2017.
2020	Burns GT. Runners as Biomechanical Systems: New Approaches With the Spring-Mass Model [PhD thesis]. University of Michigan; 2020.
2014	Kelly LA. In-Vivo Function of Human Plantar Intrinsic Foot Muscles [PhD thesis]. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland; 2014.
2021	Kessler SE. The Spring in Your Step: The Role of Muscles and Elastic Connective Tissue Within the Foot [PhD thesis]. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland; 2021.
2004	Sasaki K. Analysis of Potential Muscular Determinants of the Preferred Walk-Run Transition Speed in Human Gait [PhD thesis]. University of Texas at Austin; August 2004.