Comparison of Brain Strain Magnitudes Calculated Using Head Tracking Impact Parameters and Body Tracking Impact Parameters Obtained from 2D Video

Relying on signs and symptoms of head injury outcomes has shown to be unreliable in capturing the vulnerabilities associated with brain trauma (Karton & Hoshizaki, 2018). To accommodate the subjectivity of self-reported symptoms, data collection using sensor monitoring and video analysis combined with event reconstruction are used to objectively measure trauma exposure (Tator, 2013; Scorza & Cole, 2019; Hoshizaki et al., 2014). Athletes are instrumented with wireless sensors designed to measure head kinematics during play. However, these systems have not been widely adopted as they are expensive, face challenges with angular acceleration measures, and often require video confirmation to remove false positives. Video analysis of head impacts, in conjunction with physical event reconstruction and finite element (FE) modeling, is also used to calculate tissue level strain. This data collection method requires specialized equipment and expertise. Effective management of head trauma in sport requires an objective, accessible, and quantifiable tool that addresses the limitations associated with current measurement systems. The purpose of this research was to determine if a simplified version of video analysis and event reconstruction using impact characteristics (velocity, location, mass, and compliance) obtained from body tracking could yield similar measures of brain strain magnitude to the standard head tracking method. Ice hockey impacts (x36) that varied in terms of competition level, event type and maximum principal strain (MPS) were chosen for analysis. 2D videos of previously completed head reconstructions were reanalyzed and each event was reconstructed again in the laboratory using impact parameters obtained from body tracking. MPS values were calculated using finite element (FE) modeling and compared to the MPS values from events that were reconstructed using impact parameters obtained from head tracking. The relationship between head and body tracking MPS data and level of agreement between MPS categories were also assessed. Overall, a significant difference was observed between MPS magnitudes obtained using impact parameters from body and head tracking data from 2D video. When analyzed by event type, only shoulder and glass events demonstrated significant differences in MPS magnitudes. A strong linear relationship was depicted between the two data collection methods and moderate level of agreement between MPS categories was observed, demonstrating that impact characteristics obtained from body tracking and 2D video can be used to measure brain tissue strain.

Year	Entry
1971	Ommaya AK, Hirsch AE. Tolerances for cerebral concussion from head impact and whiplash in primates. J Biomech. 1971;4(1):13-21.
2011	Walsh ES, Rousseau P, Hoshizaki TB. The influence of impact location and angle on the dynamic impact response of a Hybrid III headform. Sports Eng. March 2011;13(3):135-143.
1975	Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.
2012	Kendall M, Post A, Rousseau P, Oeur A, Gilchrist MD, Hoshizaki B. A comparison of dynamic impact response and brain deformation metrics within the cerebrum of head impact reconstructions representing three mechanisms of head injury in ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.430-440.
1977	Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. March 1977;33(1):159-174.
1983	Gennarelli TA. Head injury in man and experimental animals: clinical aspects. Acta Neuropathol Suppl. 1983;32:1-13.
1982	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.
2006	Singh A, Lu Y, Chen C, Kallakuri S, Cavanaugh JM. A new model of traumatic axonal injury to determine the effects of strain and displacement rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:601-623. SAE 2006-22-0023.
1987	Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tomei G, Wiser R, Graham DI, Adams J. Directional dependence of axonal brain injury due to centroidal and non-centroidal acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:49-53. SAE 872197.
2012	Mihalik JP, Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Blackburn JT, Cantu RC, Greenwald RM. Head impact biomechanics in youth hockey: comparisons across playing position, event types, and impact locations. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):141-149.
2007	Kleiven S. Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstructions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:81-114. SAE 2007-22-0003.
2006	Kleiven S. Evaluation of head injury criteria using a finite element model validated against experiments on localized brain motion, intracerebral acceleration, and intracranial pressure. Int J Crashworthiness. 2006;11(1):65-79.
2016	Post A, De Grau S, Ignacy T, Meehan A, Zemek R, Hoshizaki B, Gilchrist MD. Comparison of helmeted head impact in youth and adult ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2016 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 14-16, 2016; Malaga, Spain.194-204.
2011	Rowson S, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Leonard DS, Greenwald RM, Duma SM. A six degree of freedom head acceleration measurement device for use in football. J Appl Biomech. February 2011;27(1):8-14.
2013	Milne G, Deck C, Bourdet N, Alline Q, Gallego A, Carreira RP, Willinger R. Assessment of bicyclist head injury risk under tangential impact conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2013 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2013; Gothenburg, Sweden.735-746.
2004	Hoshizaki TB, Brien SE. The science and design of head protection in sport. Neurosurgery. October 2004;55(4):956-967.
2007	Elkin BS, Morrison B. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:127-138. SAE 2007-22-0005.
2014	Rousseau P. Analysis of Concussion Metrics of Real-World Concussive and Non-Injurious Elbow and Shoulder to Head Collisions in Ice Hockey [PhD thesis]. University of Ottawa; 2014.
2012	Post A, Hoshizaki TB. Mechanisms of brain impact injuries and their prediction: a review. Trauma. October 2012;14(4):327-349.
2003	King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.
2014	Giordano C, Kleiven S. Evaluation of axonal strain as a predictor for mild traumatic brain injuries using finite element modeling. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2014;58:29-61.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.
2007	Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Greenwald RM. Validation of a noninvasive system for measuring head acceleration for use during boxing competition. J Appl Biomech. August 2007;23(3):238-244.
2011	Hutchison MG. Concussions in the National Hockey League (NHL): The Video Analysis Project [PhD thesis]. University of Toronto; 2011.
2014	Campbell K. Quantifying and Comparing the Head Impact Biomechanics of Different Player Positions for Canadian University Football [Master's thesis]. University of Western Ontario; 2014.
2001	Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.
2007	Hardy WN, Mason MJ, Foster CD, Shah CS, Kopacz JM, Yang KH, King AI, Bishop J, Bey M, Anderst W, Tashman S. A study of the response of the human cadaver head to impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:17-80. SAE 2007-22-0002.
1968	Ommaya AK. Mechanical properties of tissues of the nervous system. J Biomech. 1968;1(2):127-136.
2007	Mihalik JP, Bell DR, Marshall SW, Guskiewicz KM. Measurement of head impacts in collegiate football players: an investigation of positional and event-type differences. Neurosurgery. December 2007;61(6):1229-1235.
2000	Bain AC, Meaney DF. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng. December 2000;122(6):615-622.
2012	Rowson S, Duma SM, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Greenwald RM, Crisco JJ, Brolinson PG, Duhaime A-C, McAllister TW, Maerlender AC. Rotational head kinematics in football impacts: an injury risk function for concussion. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):1-13.
2006	Doorly MC, Gilchrist MD. The use of accident reconstruction for the analysis of traumatic brain injury due to head impacts arising from falls. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2006;9(6):371-377.
2003	Willinger R, Baumgartner D. Human head tolerance limits to specific injury mechanisms. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(6):605-617.
2020	Karton C, Hoshizaki TB, Gilchrist MD. A novel repetitive head impact exposure measurement tool differentiates player position in National Football League. Sci Rep. 2020;10:1200.
2004	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.
2011	Forero Rueda MA, Cuia L, Gilchrist MD. Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2011;14(12):1021-1031.
2020	Bailey A, Funk J, Lessley D, Sherwood C, Crandall J, Neale W, Rose N. Validation of a videogrammetry technique for analysing American football helmet kinematics. Sports Biomech. October 2020;19(5):678-700.
2018	Clark JM, Adanty K, Post A, Hoshizaki TB, Clissold J, McGoldrick A, Ni Annaidh A, Gilchrist MD. Reconstruction of real world concussive and non‐concussive accidents in equestrian sports. In: Proceedings of the 2018 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2018; Athens, Greece.311-312.
2021	Zimmerman KA, Kim J, Karton C, Lochhead L, Sharp DJ, Hoshizaki T, Ghajari M. Player position in American football influences the magnitude of mechanical strains produced in the location of chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology: a computational modelling study. J Biomech. March 30, 2021;118:110256.
2015	Clark JM, Post A, Hoshizaki TB, Gilchrist MD. Determining the relationship between linear and rotational acceleration and MPS for different magnitudes of classified brain injury risk in ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2015 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 9-11, 2015; Lyon, France.168-179.
2012	Fahlstedt M, Baeck K, Halldin P, Vander Sloten J, Goffin J, Depreitere B, Kleiven S. Influence of impact velocity and angle in a detailed reconstruction of a bicycle accident. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.787-799.
2001	Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanics of neurotrauma. Neurol Res. March–April 2001;23(2-3):144-156.
2003	Kleiven S. Influence of impact direction on the human head in prediction of subdural hematoma. J Neurotrauma. April 2003;20(4):365-379.
2012	Kendall M, Walsh ES, Hoshizaki TB. Comparison between Hybrid III and Hodgson–WSU headforms by linear and angular dynamic impact response. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P-J Sports Eng Tech. September–December 2012;226(3-4):260-265.
2003	Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.
2004	Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.
1992	Margulies SS, Thibault LE. A proposed tolerance criterion for diffuse axonal injury in man. J Biomech. August 1992;25(8):917-923.

Year

Entry

1971

Ommaya AK, Hirsch AE. Tolerances for cerebral concussion from head impact and whiplash in primates. J Biomech. 1971;4(1):13-21.

2011

Walsh ES, Rousseau P, Hoshizaki TB. The influence of impact location and angle on the dynamic impact response of a Hybrid III headform. Sports Eng. March 2011;13(3):135-143.

1975

Padgaonkar AJ, Krieger KW, King AI. Measurement of angular acceleration of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech. September 1975;42(3):552-556.

2012

Kendall M, Post A, Rousseau P, Oeur A, Gilchrist MD, Hoshizaki B. A comparison of dynamic impact response and brain deformation metrics within the cerebrum of head impact reconstructions representing three mechanisms of head injury in ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.430-440.

1977

Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. March 1977;33(1):159-174.

1983

Gennarelli TA. Head injury in man and experimental animals: clinical aspects. Acta Neuropathol Suppl. 1983;32:1-13.

1982

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):564-574.

2006

Singh A, Lu Y, Chen C, Kallakuri S, Cavanaugh JM. A new model of traumatic axonal injury to determine the effects of strain and displacement rates. Stapp Car Crash J. 2006;50:601-623. SAE 2006-22-0023.

1987

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Tomei G, Wiser R, Graham DI, Adams J. Directional dependence of axonal brain injury due to centroidal and non-centroidal acceleration. In: Proceedings of the 31st Stapp Car Crash Conference. November 9-11, 1987; New Orleans, LA. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers:49-53. SAE 872197.

2012

Mihalik JP, Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Blackburn JT, Cantu RC, Greenwald RM. Head impact biomechanics in youth hockey: comparisons across playing position, event types, and impact locations. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):141-149.

2007

Kleiven S. Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstructions. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:81-114. SAE 2007-22-0003.

2006

Kleiven S. Evaluation of head injury criteria using a finite element model validated against experiments on localized brain motion, intracerebral acceleration, and intracranial pressure. Int J Crashworthiness. 2006;11(1):65-79.

2016

Post A, De Grau S, Ignacy T, Meehan A, Zemek R, Hoshizaki B, Gilchrist MD. Comparison of helmeted head impact in youth and adult ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2016 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 14-16, 2016; Malaga, Spain.194-204.

2011

Rowson S, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Leonard DS, Greenwald RM, Duma SM. A six degree of freedom head acceleration measurement device for use in football. J Appl Biomech. February 2011;27(1):8-14.

2013

Milne G, Deck C, Bourdet N, Alline Q, Gallego A, Carreira RP, Willinger R. Assessment of bicyclist head injury risk under tangential impact conditions. In: Proceedings of the 2013 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2013; Gothenburg, Sweden.735-746.

2004

Hoshizaki TB, Brien SE. The science and design of head protection in sport. Neurosurgery. October 2004;55(4):956-967.

2007

Elkin BS, Morrison B. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:127-138. SAE 2007-22-0005.

2014

Rousseau P. Analysis of Concussion Metrics of Real-World Concussive and Non-Injurious Elbow and Shoulder to Head Collisions in Ice Hockey [PhD thesis]. University of Ottawa; 2014.

2012

Post A, Hoshizaki TB. Mechanisms of brain impact injuries and their prediction: a review. Trauma. October 2012;14(4):327-349.

2003

King AI, Yang KH, Zhang L, Hardy W, Viano DC. Is head injury caused by linear or angular acceleration? In: Proceedings of the 2003 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact. September 25, 2003; Lisbon, Portugal.1-12.

2014

Giordano C, Kleiven S. Evaluation of axonal strain as a predictor for mild traumatic brain injuries using finite element modeling. Stapp Car Crash J. November 2014;58:29-61.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR. Concussion in professional football: location and direction of helmet impacts—part 2. Neurosurgery. December 2003;53(6):1328-1341.

2007

Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Greenwald RM. Validation of a noninvasive system for measuring head acceleration for use during boxing competition. J Appl Biomech. August 2007;23(3):238-244.

2011

Hutchison MG. Concussions in the National Hockey League (NHL): The Video Analysis Project [PhD thesis]. University of Toronto; 2011.

2014

Campbell K. Quantifying and Comparing the Head Impact Biomechanics of Different Player Positions for Canadian University Football [Master's thesis]. University of Western Ontario; 2014.

2001

Hardy WN, Foster CD, Mason MJ, Yang KH, King AI, Tashman S. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar x-ray. Stapp Car Crash J. 2001;45:337-368. SAE 2001-22-0016.

2007

Hardy WN, Mason MJ, Foster CD, Shah CS, Kopacz JM, Yang KH, King AI, Bishop J, Bey M, Anderst W, Tashman S. A study of the response of the human cadaver head to impact. Stapp Car Crash J. 2007;51:17-80. SAE 2007-22-0002.

1968

Ommaya AK. Mechanical properties of tissues of the nervous system. J Biomech. 1968;1(2):127-136.

2007

Mihalik JP, Bell DR, Marshall SW, Guskiewicz KM. Measurement of head impacts in collegiate football players: an investigation of positional and event-type differences. Neurosurgery. December 2007;61(6):1229-1235.

2000

Bain AC, Meaney DF. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng. December 2000;122(6):615-622.

2012

Rowson S, Duma SM, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Greenwald RM, Crisco JJ, Brolinson PG, Duhaime A-C, McAllister TW, Maerlender AC. Rotational head kinematics in football impacts: an injury risk function for concussion. Ann Biomed Eng. January 2012;40(1):1-13.

2006

Doorly MC, Gilchrist MD. The use of accident reconstruction for the analysis of traumatic brain injury due to head impacts arising from falls. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2006;9(6):371-377.

2003

Willinger R, Baumgartner D. Human head tolerance limits to specific injury mechanisms. Int J Crashworthiness. 2003;8(6):605-617.

2020

Karton C, Hoshizaki TB, Gilchrist MD. A novel repetitive head impact exposure measurement tool differentiates player position in National Football League. Sci Rep. 2020;10:1200.

2004

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126(2):226-236.

2011

Forero Rueda MA, Cuia L, Gilchrist MD. Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng. December 2011;14(12):1021-1031.

2020

Bailey A, Funk J, Lessley D, Sherwood C, Crandall J, Neale W, Rose N. Validation of a videogrammetry technique for analysing American football helmet kinematics. Sports Biomech. October 2020;19(5):678-700.

2018

Clark JM, Adanty K, Post A, Hoshizaki TB, Clissold J, McGoldrick A, Ni Annaidh A, Gilchrist MD. Reconstruction of real world concussive and non‐concussive accidents in equestrian sports. In: Proceedings of the 2018 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2018; Athens, Greece.311-312.

2021

Zimmerman KA, Kim J, Karton C, Lochhead L, Sharp DJ, Hoshizaki T, Ghajari M. Player position in American football influences the magnitude of mechanical strains produced in the location of chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology: a computational modelling study. J Biomech. March 30, 2021;118:110256.

2015

Clark JM, Post A, Hoshizaki TB, Gilchrist MD. Determining the relationship between linear and rotational acceleration and MPS for different magnitudes of classified brain injury risk in ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the 2015 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 9-11, 2015; Lyon, France.168-179.

2012

Fahlstedt M, Baeck K, Halldin P, Vander Sloten J, Goffin J, Depreitere B, Kleiven S. Influence of impact velocity and angle in a detailed reconstruction of a bicycle accident. In: Proceedings of the 2012 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 12-14, 2012; Dublin, Ireland.787-799.

2001

Zhang L, Yang KH, King AI. Biomechanics of neurotrauma. Neurol Res. March–April 2001;23(2-3):144-156.

2003

Kleiven S. Influence of impact direction on the human head in prediction of subdural hematoma. J Neurotrauma. April 2003;20(4):365-379.

2012

Kendall M, Walsh ES, Hoshizaki TB. Comparison between Hybrid III and Hodgson–WSU headforms by linear and angular dynamic impact response. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P-J Sports Eng Tech. September–December 2012;226(3-4):260-265.

2003

Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker A, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF. Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. October 2003;53(4):799-814.

2004

Pellman EJ, Powell JW, Viano DC, Casson IR, Tucker AM, Feuer H, Lovell M, Waeckerle JF, Robertson DW. Concussion in professional football: epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature—Part 3. Neurosurgery. January 2004;54(1):81-94.

1992

Margulies SS, Thibault LE. A proposed tolerance criterion for diffuse axonal injury in man. J Biomech. August 1992;25(8):917-923.

Year	Entry
2024	Azadi A, Dehghan P, Graham R, Hoshizaki TB. A deep learning network for detecting head impacts in ice hockey from 2D game video. In: Proceedings of the 2024 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2024; Stockholm, Sweden.98-108.

Year

Entry

2024

Azadi A, Dehghan P, Graham R, Hoshizaki TB. A deep learning network for detecting head impacts in ice hockey from 2D game video. In: Proceedings of the 2024 International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Injury. September 11-13, 2024; Stockholm, Sweden.98-108.