In vivo forces in the anterior cruciate ligament:​ direct measurements during walking and trotting in a quadruped

Holden, John P.; Grood, Edward S.; Korvick, Donna L.; Cummings, John F.; Butler, David L.; Bylski-Austrow, Donita I.

Affiliations

¹National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A.

²Noyes-Giannestras Biomechanics Laboratories, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

Abstract

In vivo forces in the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) were measured in three adult goats during quiet standing and during gait (walking or trotting). A modified pressure transducer (MPT) was implanted within the anteromedial band of the ligament to make direct measurements of ACL force. One or two days following implantation, measurements were made of ACL force, knee joint flexion angle, ground reaction forces, and speed of locomotion. MPT calibration was performed in vitro using anteroposterior displacement tests at six flexion angles. The ACL was loaded during quiet standing (30–61 N) and during the stance phase of gait. Peak ACL forces were achieved within the first 40% of stance, with magnitudes ranging from 63 to 124 N during walking and from 102 to 150 N during trotting. The average ACL force during the stance phase ranged from 34 to 68 N while walking and from 46 to 69 N while trotting. The partial correlations between peak ACL force and speed, and between average ACL force and speed, were both statistically different from zero (p < 0.01). ACL forces dropped to zero during the swing phase in all trials. ACL forces were less than 15 N throughout swing in two of the animals, both of which did not extend their knees during gait beyond 20° from full extension. In the animal which did show knee extension beyond 40° (20° from full extension), ACL loading occurred during late swing. The magnitude of the peak ACL force during late swing was significantly correlated with the extent of knee extension in this animal.

Links

DOI: 10.1016/0021-9290(94)90063-9

PubMed: 8027088

WoS: A1994NL01300002

History

Revised: 1993-08-10

Cited Works (3)

Year	Entry
1976	Noyes FR, Grood ES. The strength of the anterior cruciate ligament in humans and Rhesus monkeys. J Bone Joint Surg. 1976;58A(8):1074-1082.
1974	Barnes GRG, Pinder DN. In vivo tendon tension and bone strain measurement and correlation. J Biomech. January 1974;7(1):35-42.
1970	Morrison JB. The mechanics of the knee joint in relation to normal walking. J Biomech. January 1970;3(1):51-61.

Cited By (22)

Year	Entry
2003	Woo SL-Y, Abramowitch SD, Loh JC, Musahl V, Wang JH-C. Ligament healing: present status and the future of functional tissue engineering. In: Guilak F, Butler DL, Goldstein SA, Mooney DJ, eds. Functional Tissue Engineering. New York, NY: Inc., Springer-Verlag; 2003:17-34.
2001	Provenzano P, Lakes R, Keenan T, Vanderby R Jr. Nonlinear ligament viscoelasticity. Ann Biomed Eng. October 2001;29(10):908-914.
2004	Fleming BC, Beynnon BD. In vivo measurement of ligament/tendon strains and forces: a review. Ann Biomed Eng. 2004;32(3):318-328.
2001	Weiss JA, Gardiner JC. Computational modeling of ligament mechanics. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2001;29(3):303-371.
1996	Rudy TW, Livesay GA, Woo SL-Y, Fu FH. A combined robotic/universal force sensor approach to determine in situ forces of knee ligaments. J Biomech. October 1996;29(10):1357-1360.
2007	Schwab TD, Johnston CR, Oxland TR, Thornton GM. Continuum damage mechanics (CDM) modelling demonstrates that ligament fatigue damage accumulates by different mechanisms than creep damage. J Biomech. 2007;40(14):3279-3284.
2000	Butler DL, Goldstein SA, Guilak F. Functional tissue engineering: the role of biomechanics. J Biomech Eng. December 2000;122(6):570-575.
2020	Hexter AT, Shahbazi S, Thangarajah T, Kalaskar D, Haddad FS, Blunn G. Characterisation of the tensile properties of demineralised cortical bone when used as an anterior cruciate ligament allograft. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. October 2020;110:103981.
1997	Thornton GM, Oliynyk A, Frank CB, Shrive NG. Ligament creep cannot be predicted from stress relaxation at low stress: a biomechanical study of the rabbit medial collateral ligament. J Orthop Res. 1997;15(5):652-656.
2023	Szczesny SE, Corr DT. Tendon cell and tissue culture: perspectives and recommendations. J Orthop Res. October 2023;41(10):2093-2104.
2024	Zalk SS. Quantifying Biomechanical Properties of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament in a Rodent Model [Master's thesis]. Brown University; April 26, 2024.
1997	Pioletti DP. Viscoelastic Properties of Soft Tissues Application to Knee Ligaments and Tendons [PhD thesis]. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne; 1997.
1997	Debski RE. A Combined Experimental and Computational Approach to Examine the Function of the Capsuloligamentous Structures At the Glenohumeral Joint [PhD thesis]. University of Pittsburgh; 1997.
2003	Darcy SP. Estimation of ACL Forces by Reproducing Average Knee Kinematics [Master's thesis]. University of Pittsburgh; 2003.
2003	Gil JE. Development of a Biomechanical Testing Platform for the Study of the Human Knee Joint [Master's thesis]. University of Pittsburgh; 2003.
2010	Fisher MB. Functional Tissue Engineering of the Healing Anterior Cruciate Ligament: A Combined Experimental and Computational Approach [PhD thesis]. University of Pittsburgh; 2010.
2015	Farraro KF. Regeneration of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament Using Resorbable Metallic and Extracellular Matrix Bioscaffolds [PhD thesis]. University of Pittsburgh; 2015.
2010	Tapper JE. Dynamic in Vivo Kinematics in an Ovine Stifle Joint Model of Osteoarthritis [PhD thesis]. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary; March 2010.
2012	Beveridge JE. Surface Interactions and Cartilage Damage in Two Ovine Models of Stifle Injury [PhD thesis]. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary; April 2012.
2002	Gardiner JC. Computational Modeling of Ligament Mechanics [PhD thesis]. University of Utah; May 2002.
1996	Kunz DN. Design, Evaluation, and Application of a System for Mechanical Evaluation of the Lumbar Spine [PhD thesis]. University of Wisconsin – Madison; 1996.
1997	Hurschler C. Collagen Matrix in Normal and Healing Ligaments: Microstructural Behavior, Biological Adaptation, and a Structural Mechanical Model [PhD thesis]. University of Wisconsin – Madison; 1997.